Spain’s Liberal Revolution: From Crisis of 1808 to Isabel II
The Crisis of 1808: The Fall of the Old Regime
The Crisis of 1808 marked a turning point in Spanish history. The Old Regime would disappear, paving the way for a liberal revolution. This revolution would see liberalism prevail, promising freedom and equal rights for all. It would establish national sovereignty and a constitution, with a separation of powers between the judicial, executive, and legislative branches.
Charles IV ascended to the throne a year before the French Revolution. He was a reformist king, but the outbreak of the revolution in France, a nation allied with Spain, led to drastic measures. The first action was to establish a cordon sanitaire, isolating France and condemning anything originating from there. Godoy became the sole minister in 1792, and his first act was to involve Spain in a war against France, allying with countries like England in what he called the “anti-French coalition.”
France’s victory over Spain in 1795 led to a peace treaty and a renewed alliance. Several pacts were made between Godoy and Napoleon against England. The first, the Treaty of San Ildefonso, resulted in Spain’s defeat by England. In 1800, the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed to attack England’s allies, leading to a conflict with Portugal and the annexation of the Olivenza region to Spain. The confrontation between Spain and England escalated, culminating in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where the British fleet triumphed, establishing its dominance over the seas.
In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, aiming to invade Portugal, an ally of England. French troops were allowed to pass through Spain and were housed in barracks. In 1808, the Mutiny of Aranjuez occurred, instigated by Prince Ferdinand VII due to his rivalry with Godoy. The Royal Guard assaulted the Palace of Aranjuez, leading to Godoy’s dismissal and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
In April of that year, the entire royal family traveled to the French border to meet with Napoleon. Napoleon forced Ferdinand to renounce his throne and ultimately transfer his dynastic rights to him. On May 2nd, a popular uprising against the French erupted in Madrid, marking the beginning of the War of Independence.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812
In 1810, the Supreme Central Junta decided to convene the Cortes Generales. A decree was issued to elect representatives from all Spanish provinces. The Cortes opened in September with 104 deputies. These deputies, primarily from the bourgeoisie, included officials, doctors, lawyers, and merchants. The liberals among them sought to implement their ideas and create a constitution.
The Constitution was drafted in Cádiz in 1812, accepted on March 19th, and became known as “La Pepa.” For the first time, it recognized national sovereignty, placing power in the hands of the nation and dismantling absolutism. The Constitution established the division of powers: legislative power resided in the unicameral Cortes, elected by universal male suffrage for men over 25; executive power was held by the king, whose powers were limited, particularly in taxation and foreign policy, requiring the Cortes’ permission; and judicial power rested with the courts.
The only conservative aspect of the Constitution was religion, declaring Spain a Roman Catholic country and forbidding other religions. Mayors were to be elected by popular vote. Many other laws were enacted, including the abolition of feudal rights and the establishment of a liberal economic system. Censorship was established for religious matters.
Fernando VII: Absolutism and Liberalism
Constitutional Triennium (1820-1823)
The second phase of Fernando VII’s reign began in 1820 when Commander Riego led an army revolt in Las Cabezas de San Juan against Fernando VII’s absolutism. After two months without army support, Fernando restored liberalism. The liberals were divided into two groups: the moderates, who found the Constitution of Cádiz too conservative, and the progressives.
Fernando VII initially formed a government with the more moderate liberals, but it faced numerous problems and lasted only a year. Reforms were implemented in the agricultural economy, including the creation of a single land tax, requiring all landowners to pay property tax. In 1822, an absolutist revolt by the Royal Guard occurred, and absolutist guerrillas emerged in northern Spain. Fernando VII, seeking to quell the uprising, replaced the moderate government with a more radical liberal one.
In October 1822, the European powers of the Holy Alliance met and decided to send a French army to end liberalism in Spain. In 1823, Spain was invaded, and in October, Fernando VII restored absolutism. He executed Commander Riego and began a crackdown on liberals, although economic reforms were maintained.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
In 1825, the Mining Law was created, auctioning off most mining operations. In 1829, the first Commercial Code was established, and in 1831, the Stock Exchange was created. From 1826, reactionary groups emerged, urging the king to be more absolutist, with Carlos María Isidro as a prominent figure.
In 1827, an armed uprising of an absolutist nature, known as the War of the Aggrieved, took place. Fernando VII married for the fourth time in 1829, but he had no children. The Salic Law, which prohibited women from reigning, was in place. Anticipating the birth of his daughter, the king published the Pragmatic Sanction, abolishing the Salic Law. This sparked protests from his brother, and Fernando VII began to rely on liberals to govern.
In 1832, the events at La Granja occurred. Fernando VII, who was ill, was pressured to revoke the Pragmatic Sanction. In 1833, his brother was banished to Portugal for refusing to recognize his niece, Isabel, as Princess of Asturias. On September 29, 1833, Fernando VII died. The next day, his daughter Isabel was proclaimed the legitimate successor, with her mother, María Cristina, named regent until she came of age. Carlos María Isidro refused to accept the appointment, initiating the First Carlist War.
Item 12: Construction and Strengthening of the Liberal State
Carlist Wars
First Carlist War (1833-1840)
On October 2, 1833, the First Carlist War began, spreading across the northern and eastern regions. Militarily, the sieges of Bilbao were significant, led by the Carlist military leader Zumalacárregui. The Carlist army was defeated in the Maestrazgo. In 1837, a Carlist expedition led by Carlos reached the outskirts of Madrid but failed to gain support.
From 1837 to 1840, the Isabelline forces gained supremacy as the Carlists were divided between moderates and apostolics. In 1839, an agreement was reached between Espartero and Maroto, known as the Embrace of Vergara. In 1840, the war ended with the defeat of the Carlist forces in the Maestrazgo by General Espartero, and Cabrera was defeated.
Second Carlist War (1846-1849)
Cabrera arrived in France and led guerrilla warfare in Catalonia in 1847. In 1849, Isabel II granted amnesty to imprisoned Carlists. General Cabrera fled to France, but some guerrillas remained. In 1860, a pronouncement by the Isabelline army turned Carlist, but it was quickly dissolved.
Regency of María Cristina (1833-1840)
When María Cristina was named regent, she had the right to appoint the government. Supported by liberals, she formed a more liberal government with conservatives. Cea Bermúdez was appointed Prime Minister, but in 1834, Martínez de la Rosa replaced him. One of the first actions was to develop a constitution, the Royal Statute of 1834. It did not recognize national sovereignty and established bicameral Cortes: a Chamber of Peers (Senate) and a Chamber of Deputies elected by restrictive suffrage.
Liberals were dissatisfied with the text. In 1835, political unrest occurred in several cities. María Cristina replaced Martínez de la Rosa with Mendizábal as Prime Minister. He continued financial reforms and allowed public freedoms of the press, association, and expression. In 1836, elections were held, and Mendizábal remained head of government but later resigned. Istúriz formed a more conservative government, leading to social protests in several cities. A Royal Guard pronouncement demanded the proclamation of the Constitution of 1812. The Cortes decided to draft a new constitution.
The Constitution of 1837 was progressive-liberal, similar to that of Cádiz but shorter. It recognized national sovereignty, the separation of powers (executive, legislative, and judicial), and individual freedoms. City councils were directly elected. The Cortes had the sole power to levy taxes. María Cristina later appointed a moderate government. Espartero, the leader of the progressive liberals, was very popular, and María Cristina tried to support his government. In 1840, a clash occurred between Espartero and María Cristina. María Cristina abdicated on October 12, 1840, and went into exile in France.
Espartero’s Regency (1840-1843)
The Cortes appointed Espartero as regent. He primarily supported landowners, leading to clashes with the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. Espartero’s regency was a troubled period. One of his first actions was to suppress a moderate pronouncement led by generals like Diego de León and Ocaña, who were executed in 1841.
In November 1841, an insurrection occurred in Barcelona due to free-trade measures that removed taxes on British textiles, harming Barcelona’s industries. Espartero bombed Barcelona and began losing support. In the summer of 1843, a popular insurrection against Espartero, supported by the military, took place. In August, Espartero fled to London. The Cortes, facing a political crisis, proclaimed Isabel II of age and appointed Narváez as head of government.
Reign of Isabel II: The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
Isabel appointed González Bravo as head of government, but he lasted only three months. Narváez, leader of the moderate liberals, was then appointed. This was a stable period with fewer political changes. Moderate liberals represented the upper class. Isabel favored conservatives over progressives. The elite were military figures. Conservatives defended limited suffrage, shared sovereignty, and limiting individual rights.
Progressives advocated for reforms, supported the middle classes, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, and favored universal male suffrage and national sovereignty.
Constitution of 1845
This conservative constitution recognized shared sovereignty between the king and the Cortes. The legislature was bicameral: Congress and Senate, with senators appointed by the king for life. It recognized Catholicism as the state religion and mandated state support for the clergy, following Mendizábal’s confiscations. City and provincial councils were appointed by the king. The Civil Guard was created in 1844 as the first national security body to promote good governance and public safety. A new Civil Code was created in 1855.
A state administration was built, with provincial councils deployed throughout Spain, led by the provincial governor, who represented the government in the provinces and was responsible for tax collection, military recruitment, law enforcement, supplies, and education. The Concordat of 1851, the first modern concordat, was a treaty between Spain and the Vatican. The Catholic Church had its own jurisdiction, the Court of the Rota, an ecclesiastical tribunal. The Concordat recognized the Church’s right to education. The Vatican did not recognize Isabel II’s legitimacy until the Concordat was signed.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Isabel II decided to bring the progressives into government, appointing Espartero as Prime Minister and O’Donnell as Minister of War. The first step was to call new elections, leading to the emergence of a new party, the Liberal Union, created by O’Donnell. The progressives won the elections, with the Liberal Union coming in second. A new constitution was drafted in 1856.
Economic and legal reforms were implemented, including the second confiscation by Madoz, the publication of the General Railway Law, and the Credit Societies Act. Espartero resigned in 1856. The Queen appointed O’Donnell as the new head of government, causing major violent protests.
End of the Reign of Isabel II (1863-1868)
The economic crisis of 1863 coincided with the completion of many railway projects, leading to a financial crisis. Between 1863 and 1868, there were over 20 different governments. In 1865, the events of San Daniel occurred, with university student revolts against Isabel II. Deaths occurred, creating a crisis of government.
In 1866, a military coup organized by General Prim failed, and he fled to France. The San Gil barracks revolted, and General Serrano bombarded the barracks, resulting in 60 deaths and 66 executions. In August 1866, the main leaders of political parties in Spain, except for the moderates, met in Ostend, Belgium. They signed the Ostend Pact, agreeing to fight together to overthrow the Queen and call general elections by universal suffrage.
In 1867, O’Donnell died. In September 1868, a military uprising organized by Admiral Topete and General Prim forced Isabel II into exile in Paris.