Spain’s Democratic Sexenio: Revolution of 1868 to First Republic

Posted on Dec 11, 2024 in History

The Revolution of 1868: The “Glorious” Revolution

The Revolution of 1868, also known as the “Glorious Revolution,” began in Cadiz in September 1868. It marked the dethronement of Isabel II and the beginning of the period called the “Democratic Sexenio.”

Causes of the Revolution

The Revolution of 1868 was caused by a combination of economic and political crises, coupled with the exhaustion and unpopularity of Spanish conservatism. This ultimately ended the reign of Elizabeth II.

• Economic Crisis: The financial crisis of 1866 was triggered by the evidence that railway investments were unprofitable. Railway operations yielded very low returns, causing the value of railroad shares to plummet. This led to a decline in public debt contributions and other securities, resulting in the downfall of many owners, the bankruptcy of banks and enterprises, and increasing unemployment. The financial crisis coincided with a textile crisis, especially in Catalonia. The American Civil War had halted cotton exports, the raw material for this industry. Due to its scarcity, cotton prices rose spectacularly. Many small cotton industries could not cope with the crisis because demand had fallen due to the general economic crisis. Some closed, increasing unemployment and worsening the working class’s conditions. A food crisis caused by poor harvests in 1866 and 1867 led to famine. The price of wheat, the staple food of the Spanish population, rose 100% between 1866 and 1868.
• Political Crisis and Exhaustion of the Moderate Regime: By 1868, much of the population had reason to rise against the Elizabethan system. Industrialists, bankers, and the working class opposed the government. The government’s reaction to various uprisings was heavy-handed repression. The government of Narvaez’s actions on the night of Saint Daniel in April 1865, where a protest of university students in Madrid was charged, resulted in 9 deaths and 100 injuries. The queen deposed Narvaez and appointed O’Donnell. In 1866, O’Donnell’s government harshly repressed a revolt of sergeants at the San Gil Headquarters in Madrid, who were asking for political system reform. Shootings were involved. O’Donnell was dismissed, and subsequent governments under Narvaez or Gonzalez Bravo continued to rule by decree, closing the courts and ignoring the country’s problems.

Given this situation, members of the opposition, progressive and democratic parties in exile, met in Ostend (Belgium) in August 1866 and agreed to end the government of the Moderates. This was called the “Pact of Ostend,” led by the progressive General Prim. Both parties established a basis for joint revolutionary action. The pact was clearly anti-Isabel II, and the question of which political system would be established later, monarchy or republic, would be decided by a Constituent Cortes elected by universal suffrage. Through this agreement, the Democrats managed to impose universal suffrage, and the progressives accepted the conditions to displace the moderates from the government. In November 1867, the Liberal Union joined this pact. After O’Donnell’s death, the Unionists, led by General Serrano, provided much of the high command of the army that belonged to this party, depriving Isabel of their support.

Development of the Revolution of 1868

The revolution began on September 17 in Cadiz, where the squadron anchored in the bay revolted under Brigadier Topete, a Unionist, against the government of Elizabeth II, shouting “Viva Spain with honor!” This decision was followed in Cadiz and the province on September 18 and 19. General Prim, a progressive, met with the rebels and later traveled down the Mediterranean coast, rousing Malaga, Almeria, Cartagena, and Barcelona. Many cities quickly supported the movement, including Seville, Cordoba, and Ferrol. In Barcelona, a revolutionary council organized the rebellion and appealed for people to join it. The revolution advanced with little resistance. The government and the Crown were completely isolated, their attitude having led them to count only on the support of those directly benefiting from their policies, and very few at that, only the “clique” around the government and the queen. When the few troops loyal to the government were defeated in Alcolea (Cordoba) by the rebel troops under General Serrano, the government resigned, and the queen went into exile in France on September 29, 1868.
In the Revolution of 1868, there were several revolutions: first, the progressive parties (Prim) and Unionists (Serrano), who aimed to overthrow the government, and second, the Democrats, Republicans, and working classes, whose aims were the abolition of consumption taxes, the abolition of the draft, land redistribution, and the proclamation of the republic. The signatories of the Pact of Ostend formed a Provisional Government, ordered the dissolution of the revolutionary boards, and disarmed the National Militia. The Provisional Government, headed by Serrano, with Prim as Minister of War, launched a reform program: freedom of the press, right of assembly and association, and universal male suffrage. They also initiated education reform, democratization of Provincial Councils, and the emancipation of the children of slaves in the colonies. In the economy, they restarted the confiscation process, established the peseta as the monetary unit, adopted free trade, and opened the Spanish market to foreign capital. At the same time, they called for Constitutional Courts with universal male suffrage. The government coalition won: progressives, Unionists, and a section of Democrats. Three major minorities emerged in the Courts: Carlists, moderates, and Republicans. The Courts developed the 1869 Constitution, which was clearly a liberal democracy. It proclaimed national sovereignty and confirmed universal male suffrage. This constitution maintained the monarchy as a form of government, with a separation of powers: the Courts held legislative power, the king held executive power, and the independence of the judiciary was proclaimed, creating a system to judge competitions.

Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)

In the 1869 Constitution, it was determined that the form of government would be a constitutional monarchy. Several candidates emerged to replace the Bourbons: the Duke of Montpensier, brother-in-law of Elizabeth II, the Unionist candidate; Guillermo de Hohenzollern; Espartero; Alfonso de Bourbon, son of Elizabeth II; and Amadeo of Savoy. General Prim was in charge of complex negotiations with foreign ambassadors to find international consensus on the candidate. The chosen candidate was Amadeo of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, who had conducted Italian unification (and had a fierce battle with the Church). The monarch was elected king by the Cortes in November 1870 as king of a democratic monarchy and arrived in Spain on December 30. Before Prim’s assassination in Madrid, he was proclaimed king in Parliament on January 2, 1871. Prim’s assassination weakened the coalition between Unionists, progressives, and Democrats. Amadeo lacked solid support among social groups, politicians, and society:

• Political Opposition: Moderates loyal to the Bourbons steered the party toward the Alfonsine cause, wanting to return to Bourbon rule with Prince Alfonso, son of Elizabeth II. Canovas del Castillo directed this option. The Alfonsine option was supported by the Church against Amadeo, due to the actions of his father and a decree by Prim forcing the Church to swear allegiance to the Constitution of 1869. The Carlists were divided into two trends: one returning to the political arena and another advocating armed insurrection. They were a political force opposed to the new monarchy and held conservative positions. Neither Republicans nor the working classes supported Amadeo.
• Economic Elites: Initially neutral, the economic elite gradually distrusted a king who presided over a regime that intended to enact legislation against their interests, such as the abolition of slavery in Cuba, regulation of child labor, and mixed juries in business.

Problems During Amadeo’s Reign

Amadeo was proclaimed King in January 1871 and renounced the throne in February 1873. His reign was marked by continuing difficulties:

• Third Carlist War (1872-1876): Carlist supporters initiated an insurrection, leading to the Third Carlist War. The Carlist candidate was Charles VII, son of Carlos Maria Isidro. The rebellion began in the Basque Country and spread to areas of Catalonia and Navarra.
• Cuban War of Independence: In 1868, the so-called “Grito de Yara” initiated the Ten Years’ War in Cuba. Inspired by Creole planters, the movement quickly gained popular support by promising an end to slavery on the island. Although the government attempted to advance a project to abolish slavery and grant political reforms, the refusal of Spanish economic sectors with interests in Cuba frustrated the possibility of a peaceful resolution, and the war became a serious problem for the government.
• Federal Insurrections: In 1872, a series of federal insurrections, especially of an anarchist character, occurred. Although they were quickly repressed, they further destabilized the regime.
• Disintegration of the Governing Coalition: The key element that led to the final crisis of Amadeo’s reign was the disintegration of the governing coalition (progressives, Unionists, and Democrats). During this period, there were six governments, and elections were called three times. The opposition, from 1872, practiced total abstention as a form of political pressure. Finally, deprived of all support, the king renounced the throne on February 11, 1873.

The First Republic (1873-1874)

Implantation of the First Republic

When Amadeo I abdicated on February 11, 1873, the same day, Members and Senators met in the National Assembly, which had a monarchical majority and a Republican minority divided into Federalists and Unitarians. A Republican congressman, federalist Francisco Pi y Margall, proposed to vote on the establishment of the Republic without identifying the type of Republic (federal or unitary), which would be decided by the Constituent Assembly. Unitarian Republican Emilio Castelar took to the rostrum of Parliament and encouraged support for the Republic. The vote resulted in 258 votes for and 32 against, proclaiming the Spanish Republic with a large majority. In subsequent years, there were five presidents: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmeron, Castelar, and Serrano.

Governments and Problems of the Republic

In the session on February 11, Figueras was elected President of the Executive. His government was formed by progressive and federal Republicans, most notably Pi y Margall as Minister of the Interior. The government faced a desperate economic situation, a large deficit, and an acute economic crisis exacerbated by political instability and the continuation of the Carlist and Cuban Wars. Labor organizations responded with strikes and demonstrations. The Republic was received with enthusiasm by the Republican masses, who occupied municipal corporations and formed revolutionary boards to support it. In the cities, popular revolts occurred, demanding the abolition of the consumption tax and the draft. The government advocated for respecting the law and maintaining order, dissolving boards and repressing the riots.

Problems of the Republic

Besides the little support it had and the economic crisis, the Republic had to cope with the Carlist War, the Cuban War, and the Cantonal Revolution.

• The Carlist War: Begun in 1872, it continued and extended through Catalonia, Teruel, and Cuenca, consolidating in the Basque provinces and Maestrazgo. Charles VII installed his capital in Estella. The war continued until 1876.
• The Cuban War: Launched in 1868, it also continued. The Republic was unable to improve the situation because the authorities and Spanish officials in Cuba were supporters of the Bourbon Restoration Project and acted outside the Republican government.
• The Constituent Cortes: The government called for elections in May, as the Constitution of 1869 was monarchical. There was a large abstention in these elections, with federal Republicans achieving a majority of seats. The form of government of the Republic was discussed and voted on June 8, and the Federal Democratic Republic was approved with a large majority.

On June 10, President Figueras left the presidency, and Pi y Margall, a benevolent federal Republican, was appointed as the new president. He focused on drafting the new constitution and approving laws of a social character: abolition of slavery, free and compulsory education, separation of Church and State, and the right to unionization. A committee of parliamentarians was chosen to draft a constitution, which was presented to Parliament on July 17. It declared the federal organization of the Republic, recognizing 15 federal states, including Cuba and Puerto Rico. On July 12, in the Levant and southern Spain, the Cantonal Revolution began. Populations targeted by Republicans and radicalized by intransigent federal anarchists rioted in a number of localities (cantons), declaring independence (states within a Federal Republic).
The Cartagena canton was the first, where rebels took the town hall and formed the Revolutionary Junta. Other cantons followed: Castellon, Valencia, Alicante, Granada, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, Salamanca, Torrevieja, Almansa, Bailen, Andujar, Tarifa, and Algeciras. They wanted to force the process of implanting the Federal Republic from below, which was in the making in the courts. The Constitution was not approved.
Pi y Margall resigned in July, and Salmeron was elected. He initiated military action against the Cantonalist movement, except for Cartagena. However, he resigned in September, unable to sign the death sentences imposed by the military authority on the leaders of the cantons.
Castelar, a Unitarian Republican, was elected. Fearing impeachment because he lacked a majority in Parliament, he suspended parliamentary sessions and ruled authoritatively, granting wide powers to military commanders to maintain public order (due to the Carlist War, the Cuban War, and the active canton of Cartagena).
In January 1874, the courts were reopened, and a vote on the management of his government was defeated by 120 votes to 100. Castelar resigned, and preparations were made to elect a new President. A turn to the left was predictable, but the troops of General Pavia, a Unitarian Republican and supporter of Castelar, prevented it. Pavia, located outside the building with his staff, sent two aides to order the President of the Cortes to dissolve the session and evacuate the building in five minutes. The Civil Guard, who were guarding the building, followed the General’s orders and occupied the corridors of Parliament. The building was immediately evacuated. Pavia offered Castelar to continue in office, but he refused, not wanting to stay in power by undemocratic methods. Power shifted to a coalition of monarchists and Unitarian Republicans under General Serrano, who proclaimed the Unitary Republic and established a conservative Republican regime, regardless of the courts. During his tenure, the canton of Cartagena was subdued.

End of the Republic

On December 1, 1874, the son of Isabel II, Alfonso de Borbon, signed the Manifesto of Sandhurst (a military academy in England), in which the future king guaranteed a conversational, constitutional, and democratic monarchy. Antonio Canovas del Castillo, who had written the text, was preparing for a peaceful return to the monarchy without military intervention. However, the monarchist General Martinez Campos advanced and carried out a pronouncement on December 29 in Sagunto, proclaiming Alfonso as king. The government offered no resistance and resigned, thus ending the First Republic. Canovas formed a regency cabinet on the 31st and informed Alfonso, then in Paris and at 17 years old, that he was proclaimed King of Spain. Alfonso arrived in Spain in January 1875, beginning the Restoration.