Spain’s 19th-Century Political Turmoil: From Isabel II to Alfonso XII
Spain’s 19th-Century Political Turmoil
The Decline of Isabel II’s Reign
The final years of Queen Isabel II’s rule (1864-1868) were marked by increasing authoritarianism and political instability. Opposition grew from various political parties, military figures, and intellectuals, fueled by democratic and liberal ideals. Several unsuccessful military uprisings attempted to overthrow the government. In 1866, opposition groups formed a platform for revolution with the Covenant of Ostend, signed by progressive and democratic leaders.
The Glorious Revolution of 1868
In September 1868, a military uprising in Cadiz, with widespread popular support, triggered the Glorious Revolution. This led to the overthrow of Isabel II. Several factors contributed to the revolution:
- The existing political system had become authoritarian and ineffective.
- The Queen’s unpopularity was growing.
- Economic depression, including bank and company collapses, an agrarian crisis, and increasing state debt, led to a higher tax burden.
While primarily political, the revolution aimed to overthrow Isabel II and implement universal suffrage.
The 1869 Constitution
The 1869 Constitution was the most liberal of 19th-century Spain. Its key features included:
- National sovereignty
- Direct universal male suffrage (over 25 years old)
- Establishment of a democratic monarchy
- Executive power vested in the cabinet
- Bicameral legislature (Cortes) with a popularly elected Senate
- Recognition of rights of assembly and association
- Freedom of religion
The Search for a New King
Following the constitution’s approval, the primary objective was to elect a new king. Several candidates were considered:
- Ferdinand of Coburg (rejected due to his age)
- The Duke of Montpensier (ruled out after a duel)
- Leopold of Hohenzollern (rejected by Napoleon III)
- Alfonso, son of Isabel II (refused by Prim)
Ultimately, Amadeus of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, was chosen. Despite his qualities, he faced opposition from Carlists, supporters of Isabel II and her son, and Republicans seeking more radical reforms.
The Reign of Amadeus I and the First Republic
General Prim, a key figure in the revolution, was assassinated shortly after Amadeus’s arrival, weakening the new monarchy. Amadeus’s two-year reign was marked by social conflict and political instability. He eventually abdicated and returned to Italy. In February 1873, the Cortes proclaimed the First Spanish Republic. However, it lacked broad social support and faced opposition from powerful institutions like the Church, bankers, and army officers.
Challenges and Reforms of the First Republic
The republican governments implemented several social and democratic reforms:
- Abolition of excise tax
- Creation of a volunteer army
- Lowering the voting age to 21
- Separation of Church and State
- Development of a plan for a federal republic
A major challenge was the Cantonalist Revolt of 1873, a rebellion against the republic that threatened national unity. Several cities, starting with Cartagena, declared themselves independent cantons. The republican government eventually suppressed the uprising.
The Bourbon Restoration
In 1874, under General Serrano’s government, the stage was set for the Bourbon Restoration. On December 29, 1874, General MartÃnez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, as King of Spain.