Spain’s 19th Century: From Crisis to Republic (1788-1874)
1. Crisis of the Old Regime (1788-1808)
King Charles IV and his minister, Floridablanca, initially sought to prevent the spread of French revolutionary ideas. However, the appointment of Manuel Godoy in 1792 marked a shift. The execution of Louis XVI led to war with France, resulting in Spain’s defeat and the loss of Santo Domingo. The subsequent alliance with France against England culminated in the disastrous Battle of Trafalgar (1805). Godoy’s unpopularity and the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), allowing French troops into Spain, fueled national discontent.
2. War of Independence (1808-1814)
Napoleon’s troops occupied Spain, leading to the Mutiny of Aranjuez (March 1808), Charles IV’s abdication, and the imposition of Joseph Bonaparte as king. The 2nd of May Uprising in Madrid sparked the War of Independence. Provincial Boards formed, culminating in the Supreme Central Junta. Spanish forces, aided by British troops under Wellington and guerrilla fighters, achieved key victories (e.g., Baylen, Arapiles, San Marcial). Napoleon’s defeat in Russia led to the restoration of Ferdinand VII via the Treaty of Valençay (1813).
2.1 The Cadiz Cortes and the 1812 Constitution
The Provincial Boards, seeking coordination, established the Central Board in September 1808, assuming sovereign powers in the king’s absence. This led to the convocation of the extraordinary Cortes in Cadiz in 1810, marking the start of a revolutionary process. The Cortes comprised two main factions:
- Liberals: Advocated for revolutionary reforms based on French Revolution principles.
- Absolutists: Supported maintaining the Old Regime (absolute monarchy, estate society, mercantilist economy).
The Liberal majority, taking advantage of the king’s absence, initiated Spain’s first bourgeois liberal revolution. Key reforms included:
- Freedom of the press (1810)
- Abolition of the seigneurial regime (though nobility retained land ownership)
- Abolition of the Inquisition (1813)
- Abolition of Guilds and establishment of economic freedom (1813)
- Limited confiscation of Church property
3. Reign of Ferdinand VII and the Regency (1814-1833)
Ferdinand VII returned, initially abolishing the liberal reforms and restoring absolutism. However, a liberal uprising in 1820 forced him to accept the 1812 Constitution, initiating the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823). This period ended with French intervention and the restoration of absolutism. The last decade of Ferdinand’s reign was marked by repression and the succession issue, leading to the Carlist Wars.
4. Regency and the Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)
4.1 Regency of Maria Cristina and Espartero (1833-1843)
Upon Ferdinand VII’s death, his widow, Maria Cristina, became regent for the young Isabel II. Facing the Carlist insurrection, she initially appointed the moderate liberal Martinez de la Rosa, who introduced the Royal Statute of 1834. This established a limited, bicameral Cortes. The failure of these moderate reforms led to the division of liberals into:
- Progressive Liberals: Favored limiting the Crown’s power, expanding liberties, radical reforms (e.g., church property confiscation), broader suffrage, and a National Militia.
- Moderate Liberals: Supported strong authority, restricted freedoms, limited suffrage, and centralized control.
Maria Cristina’s opposition to the Municipalities Act of 1840 and other issues led to her resignation and the regency of General Espartero (1841-1843). Espartero continued the confiscation of church property and curtailed Basque-Navarre privileges. His regency ended with a moderate military uprising, leading to Isabel II’s early coronation.
4.2 Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
Isabel II favored the moderates, with General Narváez leading key reforms:
- Creation of the Civil Guard (1844) and abolition of the National Militia
- Centralization of power through the Councils Act (1845)
- Tax reform (1845)
- Highly restrictive Electoral Law (1846)
- Concordat with the Holy See (1851)
- Conservative Constitution of 1845, emphasizing shared sovereignty and a confessional state
4.3 Bienio Progresista (1854-1856)
Narváez’s authoritarian rule led to the Vicalvarada coup and the Manifesto of Manzanares, resulting in a progressive government under Espartero. Key measures included:
- General confiscation of Madoz (1855)
- Attempts at a new, progressive constitution
- Economic modernization efforts (e.g., Railways Act 1855)
4.4 Return of the Moderates and the Liberal Union (1856-1868)
Social unrest led to the return of the moderates under O’Donnell and Narváez. O’Donnell’s Liberal Union (1858-1863) saw economic growth and foreign interventions (Moroccan War, Santo Domingo, Mexico, Peru, Chile). The final return of Narváez (1863-1868) was marked by instability, economic crisis, and authoritarianism, culminating in the Pact of Ostend and the overthrow of Isabel II.
5. The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)
5.1 The Revolution of 1868 and the Constitution of 1869
The Glorious Revolution of 1868, led by Admiral Topete, ousted Isabel II. The subsequent Constitution of 1869 was radically liberal, establishing:
- National sovereignty
- Direct universal male suffrage
- Democratic monarchy with limited royal powers
- Responsible executive branch
- Bicameral Cortes elected by the people
- Independent judiciary
- Extensive bill of rights, including freedom of assembly, association, and religion
5.2 Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)
General Serrano served as regent while Amadeo of Savoy was chosen as king. Prim’s assassination weakened Amadeo’s position, and he faced opposition from Carlists, Alfonsinos (supporters of Alfonso, Isabel II’s son), and Republicans. Amadeo abdicated in 1873 due to political instability.
5.3 First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic was proclaimed, facing significant opposition and instability. Key measures included:
- Abolition of consumption tax and the quinta (military draft)
- Reduced voting age to 21
- Separation of Church and State
- Regulation of child labor
- Abolition of slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico
- Project for a federal republic
The Republic was plagued by internal divisions, the Carlist War, and cantonalist uprisings, ultimately collapsing in 1874 with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII.