Spain’s 18th & 19th Century Transformations: From Enlightenment to Liberalism
The Crisis of the Old Regime: The Enlightenment’s modernization efforts touched all aspects of Spanish life, but yielded limited success. Enlightened reformism faced criticism from privileged classes and indifference from others. Reformists failed to address widespread poverty, technological backwardness, and land ownership issues. This fostered distrust in change, though it remained limited.
The Impact of the French Revolution: Charles IV inherited the throne in 1788. The French Revolution erupted a year later, causing a governance crisis and panic across Europe. Charles IV’s initial advisors, sympathetic to revolutionary ideals, aimed to dismantle the estate system and its privileges, but not the absolute monarchy. Count of Floridablanca, a prominent Enlightenment figure, led the government, slowing reforms and closing borders to contain revolutionary ideas. The Spanish Enlightenment split over the French Constitution of 1791. Count of Aranda fostered reconciliation with France, but was replaced by Manuel Godoy after the Republic’s proclamation.
The Economic Crisis of the Century’s End: Domestic problems compounded foreign difficulties. After decades of growth, the late 18th century brought economic and social crisis. Wealthy landowners resisted manorial rights and tithes, often leading peasant protests. Public finances declined, debt increased, and war spending escalated from 1793. In 1798, Godoy seized and sold church-owned properties to address the deficit. This first confiscation failed. The economic and fiscal crisis worsened due to political and social instability, wars, American colonial independence threats, and the French Revolution’s radical appeal. These factors challenged the Old Regime’s survival, leading to its collapse by the turn of the century.
The War of the Convention (1793-1795): Louis XVI’s execution in 1793 turned Spanish mistrust into open hostility. Charles IV, like other European monarchs, declared war on the French Republic. The War of the Convention, fought in Catalonia, Navarra, and the Basque Country, saw the Spanish clergy support the monarchy with donations and fervent anti-French sermons. French emigres, mainly royalists and clergy, filled border regions. General Ricardos led the Spanish army to initial victories in Roussillon. Spain helped seize Toulon, but the war’s tide turned in 1794. Godoy’s army was defeated, and French troops occupied much of Navarre. Hondarribia, Donostia-San Sebastian, and Figueres surrendered, accelerating peace efforts. The 1795 Treaty of Basel brought thirteen years of agreements between France and Spain. Spain joined French alliances against Portugal and Britain, suffering naval defeats at San Vicente (1797) and Trafalgar (1805).
Liberalism in the Reign of Elizabeth II: Ferdinand VII’s death without a male heir created political uncertainty. The Bourbon succession shifted from the Partida Law (favoring the eldest child) to the Salic Law (excluding women). The Pragmatic Sanction of 1830 declared Isabella II heir, frustrating Carlists. Isabella II ascended at age three, with her mother Maria Cristina as regent. The nascent liberal regime faced challenges due to societal structure. The Moderate and Progressive parties emerged. Maria Cristina appointed Cea Bermúdez (1833-1834) to implement minor changes within absolutism. Javier de Burgos divided Spain into 49 provinces. These reforms proved insufficient, leading to Martinez de la Rosa’s appointment (1834-1835). His key achievement was the 1834 Royal Statute, establishing a system based on the sovereignty of the king and courts, with a bicameral parliament elected by census suffrage. The Quadruple Alliance (Spain, Portugal, France, and UK) formed to oppose Carlos María Isidro and Dom Miguel. Revolutionary movements in 1835 led to local and provincial boards demanding further reforms, prompting the Queen Regent to empower progressive liberals. The 1812 Constitution was reinstated, and a Constituent Cortes drafted the 1837 Constitution. This constitution established national sovereignty and a bill of rights, balancing the Crown and courts. The judiciary gained independence, the executive resided with the Crown, and the legislature was shared. The Crown held moderating power in disputes between the government and parliament. The 1840 Law of Councils, a progressive element, led to Maria Cristina’s downfall.
The Confiscation: Driven by clerical support for the Carlist cause and financial needs, the confiscation was a revolutionary measure within the liberal reform program. The nobility, Church, and municipalities held indivisible estates, passed intact to the eldest heir. Confiscation legislation decoupled these lands, allowing their sale or distribution. This aimed to weaken the old estates and provide land to peasants. Juan Alvarez de Mendizabal’s 1836-1837 confiscation declared national ownership of church properties, putting them up for auction.