Spain under Ferdinand VII: A Period of Political Turmoil
Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberalism (1814-1833)
The reign of Ferdinand VII, from the end of the Revolutionary War until his death in 1833, represents a period of reaction, an attempt by the most intransigent absolutism to demolish the work of Cadiz and the liberal movement, and return to the Old Regime. The king’s death paved the way for liberalism.
The Sexenio Absolutista (1814-1820)
The beginning of Ferdinand VII’s reign coincided with the Restoration in Europe after Napoleon’s defeat. The major European powers, meeting at the Congress of Vienna, agreed to redraw the map of Europe and reinstate the Old Regime. Following the Congress, the victorious powers of the Holy Alliance signed an agreement to preserve Europe from liberal or revolutionary movements. Ferdinand VII attempted to restore the Old Regime upon his return to Spain.
In December 1813, the Treaty of Valençay ended the Revolutionary War, and Napoleon returned the crown to Ferdinand VII. The Cortes (Spanish Parliament) had announced they would not recognize any decision by the king until he was back in Spain. They demanded he return directly to Madrid to sign the Constitution.
In May 1814, Ferdinand VII began his return, not to Madrid, but to Zaragoza, and then down the Mediterranean coast. He garnered three types of support during his journey:
- Popular support: He was acclaimed by the towns he passed through, as most Spaniards prioritized the return of the king.
- Support of the privileged classes.
- Military support from some leaders.
Against this backdrop, on May 4, 1814, in Valencia, Ferdinand signed a decree that abolished the Constitution, the Cortes, and all their legislative work. This marked a return to the concept of absolute sovereignty, the re-establishment of privileges, and essentially, a coup d’état. General Eguía was sent to Madrid with orders to seize the Cortes and arrest ministers and deputies. From then on, the Liberals were prosecuted.
Ferdinand ruled amid continuing political instability due to a lack of consistency in his approach. The country could no longer be governed as before. The economic situation was dire; the costs of war and the destruction of industrial centers by the English were compounded by the expenses of suppressing the independence movements in the American colonies. This led to a decline in colonial trade and increased discontent within the army. The most serious economic issue was the crisis of the Treasury, which could only be resolved by eliminating tax privileges, abolishing the privileges of the Mesta (sheepherders’ guild), and selling off the properties of privileged groups to generate tax revenue. These measures were opposed by free traders and the privileged classes. Unrest spread from the countryside to the cities and within the army due to delayed payments, poor living conditions in the barracks, and the deployment of troops to America.
Gradually, the liberal underground reorganized, re-establishing contacts with exiles and plotting against the absolutist state. Revolutionary circles and Masonic secret societies emerged in major cities, especially among young officers trained during the war and influenced by revolutionary ideas. Pronouncements and conspiracies followed.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Riego was the chief commander of the troops stationed in Cabezas de San Juan, who were to be sent to America. On January 1, 1820, he led a pronunciamiento (military uprising) aimed at restoring the Constitution of 1812. Riego’s pronouncement gained momentum over several weeks, succeeding mainly due to peasant support (angered by the economic situation) and the backing of other garrisons. On March 7, Ferdinand swore allegiance to the Constitution of 1812, putting it and all the legislative work of the Cortes back into effect. This period was characterized by double instability: first, the king’s attitude of vetoing legislation and appointing absolutist ministers, and his secret attempts to seek foreign intervention to restore absolute power; second, the division of the Liberals into:
- Moderates: They advocated a bicameral system, restricted suffrage (based on census), and represented the interests of the business bourgeoisie.
- Exalted or Progressives: They advocated a unicameral system, universal suffrage, and represented the interests of the middle and lower classes.
In addition to this political instability, the situation was complicated by street protests from both absolutists and those criticizing the progressive measures adopted by the moderate government.
COURTS OF CADIZ
Call of the Courts
The Central Board was created in 1808 to organize resistance and the new state. All Board members recognized the need to reform the Old Regime and agreed to convene the Cortes to decide on reforms. A parliamentary committee was formed to determine the nature of elections and the composition of the Cortes. From the outset, there were differences: some supported traditional estates-based Cortes, while others favored individual representation; some advocated a bicameral system, and others a unicameral system; and some argued that the Cortes should be called to approve taxes, while others believed they should develop a constitution.
In 1810, facing the invasion of Andalusia, the Board, isolated in Cádiz, dissolved the government and handed power to a Council of Regency. Elections to the Cortes were held in June 1810. It was ultimately decided to have a unicameral Cortes, with representatives from cities. Nobles and clergy were not explicitly excluded, but their absence was notable due to the war on the Peninsula and the independence movements in the colonies. Alternates were appointed in Cádiz. This, and the city’s accessibility from the Mediterranean coast, led to a greater number of Liberal representatives. On September 24, 1810, the Cortes convened in a single chamber.
The Composition of the Courts
The Liberals held an overwhelming majority in the Cortes, advocating for national sovereignty, a written constitution, and individual representation. Absolutists defended the ancien régime. Jovellanos, while defending a constitution, argued for one based on history, tradition, and customs, and for the sovereignty of both the Cortes and the king.
CONSTITUTION OF 1812
Features
- It established national sovereignty, a revolutionary principle that denied the divine origin of power.
- It established a separation of powers, although not a total one:
- Executive: King and government.
- Judicial: Courts.
- Legislative: Cortes, but with the king’s involvement.
- It established a unicameral system with a chamber elected by indirect universal suffrage for men over 25 years.
- It recognized rights and freedoms.
- It proclaimed Catholicism as the only permitted religion, thus denying religious freedom.
- It established a national militia alongside the Army, a body of civilians organized militarily to defend the liberal state.