Spain in the 17th Century: Habsburg Rule and Conflicts
Spain in the 17th Century: Habsburg Rule and Internal Conflicts
The Reign of the 17th Century Habsburgs: Rule of Favorites and Internal Conflicts
The 17th century saw the rise of *validos*, a figure that appeared in various European countries. A *valido* was a character, almost always a member of the aristocracy, in whom the king placed his trust, effectively handing over the reins of government. In the case of the Spanish Habsburgs, this figure reflected the kings’ lack of interest in governing and served as a useful tool, allowing the *valido* to become the target of political criticism while the king remained insulated.
The *validos* did not lead to the creation of a new institution; their appointment depended solely on the king’s trust. Once appointed, the *valido* sought external advice from boards composed of his supporters, aiming to control the administration and bypass the established councils. The administration became filled with individuals loyal to the *valido*, who sought to sideline their opponents. This system fostered corruption, as *validos* bestowed all sorts of positions and benefits upon their allies and family members.
The system of *validos* faced opposition from the nobility, who were removed from the Court and lost power in the councils; the lawyers within the councils, who were displaced by the *valido’s* favorites; and the common people, who eventually associated the *validos* with disorder and decline.
Key *Validos* of the Era
- The Duke of Lerma, during the reign of Philip III, surrounded himself with his clients, displacing the councils, and used his position for outrageous personal enrichment. He moved the capital to Valladolid, his birthplace, and managed to evade justice by becoming a cardinal. Notable events during his time include the signing of peace treaties (Treaty of London, 1604, and the Twelve Years’ Truce, 1609) and the expulsion of the Moriscos, which had a negative impact on the economies of Valencia and Aragon.
- The Count-Duke of Olivares, under Philip IV, attempted several reforms to maintain the dynastic heritage and the monarchy’s reputation. To develop the economy, he created the Great Reform Board, which aimed for demographic and economic growth and austerity in public spending. The Union de Armas was an attempt to make all territories of the monarchy contribute to its maintenance through the creation of an army funded by each kingdom according to its wealth and population. This generated opposition in places like Catalonia and Portugal.
During the reign of Charles II, several *validos* rose and fell. During the regency of Queen Mariana of Austria, Father Nithard and Fernando Valenzuela were appointed. Later, Don Juan José of Austria, the king’s brother, declared himself prime minister through a coup, albeit with considerable popular support. Towards the end of the reign, the Duke of Medinaceli and the Count of Oropesa implemented a series of economic and fiscal measures to address the monarchy’s ongoing crisis.
Internal Conflicts
In 1609, Felipe III decreed the expulsion of the Moriscos from his kingdom. The Moriscos were largely impervious to Christianity, isolated, and suspected of having contacts with pirates. The expulsion was first applied in Valencia, then Aragon, and finally spread to other realms. In total, the expulsion affected some 300,000 people, mainly impacting Valencia (a third of the population) and Aragon (a fifth of the population). Within these realms, the nobility was deprived of a docile and effective workforce. The crown compensated the nobles with the property of the expelled and allowed them to impose harsh conditions on the new settlers, which greatly slowed down repopulation efforts.
In 1631, the Count-Duke of Olivares amended the salt tax and extended it to Vizcaya, where the inhabitants were considered gentlemen and did not pay this tax. This sparked a rebellion in Vizcaya that lasted from 1631 to 1634. The need for salt for preserving food and for livestock, coupled with the perception that the tax was an attack on their privileges, led to riots in Vizcaya that ended with the abolition of the tax and the punishment of those responsible.
From the mid-17th century onwards, a series of riots and protests erupted, many rooted in tax increases and the high price of bread. The *validos* became scapegoats, with the population often shouting, “Long live the king and down with bad government!” The first such riots occurred in mid-century Andalusia, but it was towards the end of the century, in an atmosphere of political confrontation and crisis, that they became widespread.
Notable Uprisings
- In Catalonia, a peasant revolt known as the “Revolt of the *Barretines*” (1689) saw farmers protesting against the quartering of troops and the collection of a donation. This revolt was suppressed by the viceroy, supported by the councilors of Barcelona.
- In 1693, in Valencia, privileged sectors of the countryside (lawyers, clergy, and trustees) led the peasants in a revolt against seignorial taxes. The rebels formed an army of *agermanados* that was defeated by the viceroy, but the leaders managed to escape and keep the revolt alive until they were captured and executed or sent to the galleys.
- Poor harvests and rising prices caused subsistence crises in Valladolid and Madrid. In the capital, this led to the “Revolt of the Cats.” The masses, instigated by French agents, demanded a reduction in the price of bread and other food items and the resignation of Oropesa, a supporter of the Austrian succession. They sought to empower a pro-French faction, which ultimately succeeded in having Philip of Anjou designated as Charles II’s heir.