Spain in the 16th Century: Reign of Charles V and Philip II
The Hapsburg Dynasty
During the 16th century in Spain, a new dynasty of kings, the Hapsburgs, was established. This dynasty ruled until the 17th century. The 16th-century kings are referred to as the older Austrians (Charles V and Philip II), while those of the 17th century are called the Austrias minors. This division is made because in the 16th century, Spain was an empire that established hegemony over other states.
The Reign of Charles V (1516-1555)
The Heritage of Charles V: A Universal Empire
Charles V of Germany was a significant figure. Born in 1500 in Flanders to Juana la Loca and Philip, he spent most of his youth there, receiving his education. He inherited a vast empire, not through conquest, but through inheritance. From his father, he received the Netherlands, Flanders (Belgium), Luxembourg, Artois, Franche Comte, Charolais, and rights to the Duchy of Burgundy. From his mother, he received Castile, Navarra, the Canary Islands, America, and the northern counties of Africa. From his grandfather Ferdinand, he received Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples. From his grandfather Maximilian, he received Austria, Tirol, various territories in Germany, and the right to be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V’s primary objective was the creation of a universal Christian empire to combat the Ottoman Empire. To achieve this, he relied heavily on the resources of Castile.
Peninsular Conflicts
The Revolt of the Communities
The Revolt of the Communities was a rebellion against Charles V that took place in Castile. Carlos arrived in Castile in 1517, surrounded by Flemish nobles. He had three main goals: to be sworn in as king, to summon the Cortes in Valladolid (1518), and to obtain funds from the Cortes to finance his imperial election. He also aimed to place his Flemish companions in key political and administrative positions. The Castilian Cortes agreed to swear him in as king but refused to grant him the money unless he met certain conditions: learn Spanish, reside in Castile, and refrain from granting privileges to foreigners. The king accepted and traveled to Aragon and Catalonia to be sworn in as king there. He then summoned the Cortes of Santiago de Compostela (1520) and, through pressure and blackmail, obtained 400,000 ducats. He left Adrian of Utrecht as regent of Castile. This triggered a rebellion among the Castilian towns, particularly in Toledo, Segovia, and Salamanca. The rebellion had the support of much of the nobility, who had been removed from their political positions. Adrian decided to suppress the uprising by force, besieging Segovia but failing to conquer it. In response, the towns formed a Santa Junta, which united most of the towns of Castile and sought the support of Juana la Loca. Adriano then decided to offer political and administrative positions to Castilian nobles, causing most of the nobility and some cities, including Burgos, to switch sides. The townspeople radicalized their demands, calling for the abolition of certain taxes, which led to a decline in support for the Communards. Finally, the Battle of Villalar (1521) took place, where the Communards were defeated, their leaders executed, and the uprising ended. The most significant consequence was the loss of power by the Castilian towns over the king.
The Revolt of the Germanies in Valencia and the Balearic Islands
A similar movement occurred in Valencia and the Balearic Islands, with three main causes: Charles V’s disregard for the regions, refusing to convene the Cortes in Valencia or the Balearic Islands; abuses of viceregal authority, particularly against artisans; and anti-seigneurial sentiment in the region, as urban workers believed that the nobles protected the Moors instead of the artisans and workers in the cities. This movement began in Valencia (1520) with the creation of a Germania (Brotherhood), an armed urban militia initially created to defend against Barbary pirates. The Agermanados expelled the viceroy and royal authorities and even seized the Castle of Xativa. They were eventually defeated, and their leaders executed. This uprising also spread to Mallorca, where the guilds expelled the nobles. Finally, a naval expedition put an end to the movement. The main cities (Valencia, Alicante, Palma) entered a period of crisis and decline that lasted for almost two centuries.
Exterior Policy: Wars with France
Charles V inherited a conflict with France with two main objectives: European hegemony and control of certain territories, particularly in Italy. During his reign, five wars took place:
- First War (1521-1526): Sparked by Charles’s election as emperor, in which he faced Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England. The initial conflicts arose over the control of Milan, the borders of Flanders, and the rights to the Duchy of Burgundy. France allied with Venice and Switzerland, while Charles allied with Henry VIII and the Pope. The major battles took place in northern Italy, with the Battle of Pavia (1525) being the most significant. France was defeated, and Francis I was captured and taken to Castile, where he was forced to sign the Treaty of Madrid (1526). In this treaty, France renounced its claims to Milan, Genoa, and Burgundy. Once released, Francis I returned to France and broke the treaty.
- Second War (1526-1529): The causes of this war were the same as the first. France formed the League of Cognac, which included Venice, Florence, and the Pope. Charles V only had the support of several Lutheran German princes. Charles’s imperial armies invaded northern Italy, and due to delays in payment, they sacked Rome (1527). The Pope had to seek refuge, and this looting caused a commotion and religious upheaval. Most Italian princes signed an armistice with the Emperor. France continued the war for two more years before signing the Treaty of Cambrai, also known as the Ladies’ Peace. In this treaty, Charles V renounced his claim to the Duchy of Burgundy, while France renounced its claim to Milan, which became part of Charles V’s domains.
- Third War (1536-1538): This war was initiated by the French occupation of the Duchy of Savoy. France sought allies, finding them in the Ottoman Empire and Barbary pirates. Charles V allied with Henry VIII of England and German princes. The war ended with a truce, the Truce of Nice, imposed by the Pope on Charles V and the King of France.
- Fourth War (1542-1544): It began with a French attack on the borders of Flanders. France had the support of the Ottoman Empire, Sweden, and Denmark. Charles V allied with Henry VIII and German princes. Charles V’s army defeated the French, occupied the Duchy of Burgundy, and advanced towards Paris. However, it did not reach Paris because the French army resisted firmly. The Treaty of Crépy was signed, in which Charles V returned Burgundy to France and France renounced its claims to Flanders and Artois. France also promised to help Charles V against the Lutheran princes.
- Fifth War (1552-1556): The new French king, Henry II, allied with the German Protestant princes and Italian states, forming the League of Chambord. This league surprised Charles V in Innsbruck, forcing him to flee. Charles V negotiated a separate peace with the German Protestant princes, the Peace of Augsburg (1555), and continued the conflict with France until the Truce of Vaucelles.
Confrontation with the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Turks, a Muslim ethnic group, began a military expansion from Central Asia. Over the centuries, they occupied Syria, Jerusalem, and Asia Minor. Their expansion into Europe was halted after they conquered the Kingdom of Hungary, reaching the Austrian border. The Turks besieged Vienna in 1529. Charles V, engaged in other wars, limited himself to creating an army to defend against the Barbary pirates. These pirates were vassals and allies of the Ottoman Empire. They attacked the Spanish and Italian coasts, disrupting trade in the Mediterranean. Charles V launched several naval expeditions against them: one successful expedition resulted in the conquest of Tunis, while another ended in failure with the defeat at Algiers.
The Confrontation with the German Lutheran Princes: Luther’s Reformation
This conflict was the result of the Reformation initiated by Martin Luther in 1517. The Christian church in the West had been unified and homogeneous. In 1517, the Lutheran Reformation began when Luther, a monk, publicly posted his Ninety-five Theses against indulgences on the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. Martin Luther argued that the salvation of Christians is achieved solely through faith, not good works. To determine if one has faith, he advocated the study and reading of Scripture. He believed that the Church hierarchy had become corrupt and served no purpose. The Pope reacted angrily and summoned Luther, who refused to recant. Luther’s ideas gained traction, particularly among the princes of the northern German states, as he also advocated for the secularization of church property. Germany became divided into two areas: the North, where Lutheranism dominated, and the South, where most princes remained Catholic. Charles V began to take action. The Diet of Augsburg was a meeting of all German princes convened by Charles V to find a compromise between Catholics and Lutherans. It ended in failure. He then promulgated the Edict of Worms, a law issued by the emperor to all princes. It condemned all of Luther’s theses and obligated Lutheran princes to return church lands. The Lutheran princes rejected Charles V’s decision, and war broke out between Charles V and the Protestants. The Protestants signed the Schmalkaldic League, seeking the support of France. Charles V was forced to make peace with the Protestant princes, resulting in the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, which suspended the Edict of Worms and allowed the princes to choose their religion.
The Reign of Philip II (1555-1598)
Interior Policy
The Morisco Revolt
Following the expulsion of the Moors from Granada, the region was repopulated by Christians. The Morisco Revolt took place in Granada due to the harsh treatment of the Moriscos (Muslims who had converted to Christianity).
The Revolt of Aragon
The Revolt of Aragon was caused by two main factors: the appointment of Castilian viceroys in Aragon, which undermined the region’s autonomy, and the case of Antonio Pérez, one of Philip II’s personal secretaries. Pérez, an Aragonese, was accused of murder and selling secrets to France and was imprisoned. He escaped and sought refuge in Aragon, where he received protection from the Chief Justice of Aragon, who invoked the privileges of Aragon to protect Pérez from Philip II. Philip II resorted to the only court with authority in all territories, the Inquisition, and denounced Pérez. Pérez was arrested, but this triggered an uprising in Zaragoza, where the people freed Pérez and expelled the Viceroy. Philip II sent an army to occupy Zaragoza but failed to capture Pérez, who fled to France. The main leaders of the revolt were executed. Philip II retained the privileges of Aragon but limited the power of the Chief Justice.
Financial Problems of the Empire
Philip II inherited a heavily indebted state from his father. Revenues came from indirect taxation, royal income, the quinto real (a 20% tax on precious metals from the Americas), customs duties, subsidies from the Cortes, domestic public debt, foreign loans, and interest. Expenses included the royal household, administration, and the army. Philip II sought new sources of revenue and created the millones tax, specifically designed to cover the costs of the defeat of the Spanish Armada. He also relied on internal public debt, known as juros. Finally, he resorted to the sale of public offices, which became hereditary. This generated income but meant that the offices went to those with the most money. Despite these measures, Philip II’s financial problems persisted, leading him to declare several bankruptcies during his reign: in 1556 (inherited from his father), in 1575 (which ruined the wool trade with Flanders), and in 1596 (which ruined the textile industry in Castile). Bankruptcy meant suspending debt repayments and interest, renegotiating the debt, extending repayment deadlines, and increasing interest rates. This postponed the problem but did not solve it.
Foreign Policy of Philip II
Philip II’s foreign policy was a continuation of his father’s, but he paid less attention to the German Lutheran princes, as his uncle ruled Germany. His foreign policy can be divided chronologically into two main phases: dealing with inherited problems and new problems that arose outside the Spanish monarchy.
Confrontation with France: The Battle of St. Quentin
To isolate France, Philip II married Mary Tudor, the Catholic Queen of England, securing an alliance with England and ensuring the wool trade with Flanders. War with France resumed due to problems in northern Italy and Flanders. This war ended with two important Spanish victories: the Battle of St. Quentin and the Battle of Gravelines. France was forced to make peace with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. In this treaty, France recognized Spanish hegemony and Spanish control over all disputed territories: Artois, Franche-Comté, Milan, and Naples. It also established a second marriage for Philip II to Elizabeth of Valois, the daughter of the French king. This marriage involved Spain in the French Wars of Religion (between Catholics and Huguenots (Calvinists)). Philip II supported the Catholics. These wars ended with the victory of Henry of Navarre, who eventually converted to Catholicism.
The Annexation of Portugal
This occurred after the death of the King of Portugal, Sebastian, in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir. Sebastian died without an heir, leading to a regency under Cardinal Henry and a search for a new king. Two candidates emerged: António, Prior of Crato, and Philip II. Philip II’s claim to the Portuguese throne came through his mother, Isabella of Portugal. António had the support of the middle classes and the people, while Philip II had the support of the nobility and merchants. Philip II intervened militarily in 1581. Spanish troops under the Duke of Alba entered Portugal, and the Cortes of Tomar elected Philip II as King of Portugal. After incorporating Portugal, Philip II maintained the existing institutions. The only change was that Portugal shared a king with Castile. This created a vast empire that included not only Portugal but also its colonies in Africa, India, Indochina, China, and Brazil. Philip II’s policy towards Portugal was to maintain its autonomy. Viceroys and governors were always Portuguese.
Confrontation with the Ottoman Empire: The Battle of Lepanto
Philip II also inherited the conflict with the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary pirates, who disrupted maritime trade and raided the Spanish coast. Several expeditions were launched against the Barbary pirates: the expedition to Djerba ended with the occupation of the island, but the Spanish were forced to abandon it; the expedition to Gelves ended in failure. Against the Ottoman Empire, Philip II sought allies and formed the Holy League (composed of the Pope, Philip II, and Venice). This league created a large fleet under the command of Don John of Austria, which defeated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto, significantly weakening the naval power of the Ottoman Empire. The war continued for 10 years until a truce was signed, ending the Ottoman threat to Spain.
The Revolt of the Netherlands
Philip II inherited the Netherlands, a territory with a troubled population due to three main factors: religion (Calvinism, a more radical form of Protestantism than Lutheranism, developed in the northern provinces, while the southern provinces remained predominantly Catholic, leading to persecution by the Inquisition), politics (viceroys and governors were Castilian nobles, causing resentment among the local nobility), and economy (the region was economically important due to its artisanal and commercial activities, with the bourgeoisie dominating the southern provinces and the middle class dominating the northern provinces). The rebellion broke out in 1566. Royal authorities were expelled, the Inquisition burned churches, and Catholic symbols were destroyed. Philip II appointed the Duke of Alba as governor-general. Alba led the tercios (Spanish infantry regiments) to the Netherlands and brutally suppressed the rebellion. He created the Council of Troubles, also known as the Council of Blood, which prosecuted both Catholics and Calvinists. This repression quelled the rebellion in the southern provinces, but the northern provinces united under the leadership of William of Orange and declared war on Spain, seeking help from Lutheran princes and England. In this war, the Spanish tercios were victorious on land but defeated at sea. Due to the difficulty of suppressing the rebellion, Philip II changed tactics. He replaced the Duke of Alba with Luis de Requesens, who abolished the Council of Blood and released prisoners. Requesens was replaced by Don John of Austria, who withdrew the tercios from the territory and allowed Calvinists to practice their religion freely. Don John was succeeded by Alessandro Farnese, who attracted Catholics in the south, leading to the formation of the Union of Arras. The Calvinists united in the Union of Utrecht and proclaimed the independence of the northern provinces (the United Provinces), continuing the war against Spain and the Catholics in the south. Philip II eventually ceded the southern provinces to his daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia.
Confrontation with England: The Spanish Armada
Upon the death of Mary Tudor, Elizabeth I became Queen of England. Elizabeth I persecuted Catholics, making her an enemy of Philip II and a defender of Protestantism. England became a haven for Spain’s enemies, and English privateers attacked Spanish ships and trade routes.