Spain: From Monarchy to Republic (1898-1936)

Posted on Dec 5, 2024 in History

The Disaster of ’98 and the Regenerationist Movement

In 1898, the U.S. declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana, Cuba. The defeat resulted in the loss of Spain’s last colonies (Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico), an event known as the Disaster of ’98. This led to the emergence of the Regenerationist Movement, an intellectual movement that denounced Spain’s decadence and proposed reforms. A prominent figure in this movement was Joaquín Costa.

Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII

Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne in 1902, continuing the constitutional monarchy established in 1876. The system of alternating power between the Conservative Party (led by Cánovas del Castillo and later Maura) and the Liberal Party (led by Sagasta and later Canalejas) persisted. Maura attempted to end political corruption, while Canalejas pursued decentralization and introduced the “Padlock Law,” which restricted the establishment of new religious orders. Nationalist parties like the PNV and Catalan League gained support from the Basque and Catalan bourgeoisie, while the middle and working classes increasingly voted for Republican parties, the PSOE, and the UGT and CNT trade unions.

Crises of the Restoration System (1909-1923)

  1. The Tragic Week (1909): Sparked by the deployment of troops to Morocco, which disproportionately affected the lower classes, this event highlighted social inequalities.
  2. The Crisis of 1917: An assembly in Barcelona demanded a new constitution, accompanied by a general strike organized by trade unions.
  3. Social Violence (1919-1923): Widespread social unrest led to the formation of bourgeois coalition governments.

Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)

Amidst the crisis and the loss of Annual in 1921, General Primo de Rivera, with the King’s consent, launched a coup in 1923. He suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament, banned political parties and trade unions, and ended the war in Morocco. Economic prosperity in the 1920s initially bolstered the dictatorship, which focused on public works projects. However, it faced increasing criticism from intellectuals. In 1929, the King withdrew his support, leading to Primo de Rivera’s resignation.

The Pact of San Sebastian (1930)

Alfonso XIII attempted to restore the constitutional monarchy, but faced strong opposition, particularly from Republicans who saw him as complicit in the dictatorship. In August 1930, Republicans, Socialists, Catalan nationalists, and former monarchists signed the Pact of San Sebastian, agreeing to participate in elections and establish a republic.

Interim Government and the 1931 Constitution

A provisional government, composed of the parties that signed the Pact of San Sebastian and presided over by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, oversaw the development of the 1931 Constitution. This constitution established a democratic system with key features including:

  1. Recognition of individual liberties, including divorce.
  2. Universal suffrage.
  3. Secular state.
  4. Decentralized subdivisions.
  5. Social welfare and strengthened public education.

This marked the beginning of Spain’s first fully democratic era, but tensions remained high, with street protests and conspiracies against the government. Alcalá-Zamora became President of the Republic, and Manuel Azaña was appointed Prime Minister.

The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)

Azaña’s government implemented significant reforms:

  1. Agrarian Reform: Expropriation of large estates and redistribution of land to farmworkers.
  2. Catalan Autonomy: Approval of the Statute of Núria in 1932 and establishment of the Generalitat.
  3. Military Reform: Required military commanders to swear allegiance to the Republic and offered unpaid retirement.
  4. Labor Reforms: Minimum wages and accident insurance.
  5. Education Reform: Construction of schools and increased education budget.
  6. Legalization of civil marriage and divorce.

Opposition to Reforms

The reforms faced opposition from landowners. In August 1932, General Sanjurjo led a failed coup attempt in Seville. Anarchists staged uprisings and occupied farms in Casas Viejas (Cádiz). A peasant uprising in January 1933 resulted in several deaths. In September 1933, Azaña resigned, and new elections were called.

The Conservative Biennium (1933-1935)

The Radical Party, led by Lerroux, won the elections with support from the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights), a Catholic party led by Gil Robles. This government halted the previous reforms. In 1934, the inclusion of CEDA ministers in the government triggered the October Revolution:

  1. Asturias: Labor organizations occupied the coal basin, but the revolt was crushed by Franco.
  2. Catalonia: Lluís Companys proclaimed a Catalan Republic.

Following the suppression of the revolution, the government faced a crisis. New elections were called in February 1936.

The Popular Front and the Road to Civil War

The left united under the Popular Front (Socialists, Communists, Republicans, some nationalists, and anarchists). On the right, extremist leaders like José Calvo Sotelo and José Antonio Primo de Rivera (leader of the Falange) gained influence. The Popular Front narrowly won the elections. The new government resumed reforms and released prisoners from the October Revolution. Alcalá-Zamora was dismissed, and Azaña became President. Tensions escalated, with strikes, church burnings, and clashes between Falangists and labor organizations. Some military figures, led by Emilio Mola, began plotting a coup. On July 12, 1936, Calvo Sotelo was assassinated. A day later, Lieutenant Castillo was killed by right-wing gunmen. This triggered the military uprising in Spanish Morocco on July 17, 1936, led by Francisco Franco.

The Coup and the Division of Spain

The military revolt spread to mainland Spain on July 18, 1936, dividing the country:

  1. Nationalists: The rebels formed the National Defense Board in Burgos. Franco was appointed head of state and government, and all supporting political forces were merged into the FET y de las JONS party.
  2. Republicans: The government’s authority collapsed. Trade unions and grassroots organizations initiated a social revolution, organizing militias and creating the Popular Army.

Internationalization of the Conflict

The Civil War drew international attention. A non-intervention agreement was signed by European powers, but it was soon broken. Both sides received foreign aid:

  1. The Republic received support from the USSR, paying with gold reserves from the Bank of Spain.
  2. The Nationalists received arms and soldiers from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.

The Republic also received support from intellectuals and international volunteers who joined the International Brigades.

War, Hunger, and Repression

The war was marked by fear, hunger, and death. Food rationing was widespread. Reprisals occurred on both sides, often in the form of “paseos” (kidnappings and extrajudicial killings).

  • Republican supporters, intellectuals, and loyal soldiers were imprisoned or killed.
  • Landowners, businessmen, and clergy were persecuted in Republican areas.
  • Many were executed based on accusations of supporting the enemy.
  • Victims were often buried in unmarked mass graves.

Refugees and Exiles

Thousands fled their homes, including around 30,000 children known as the “Children of War.” Many never returned. At the war’s end, many went into exile.

The Silver Age of Spanish Culture

The first third of the 20th century was a period of cultural flourishing known as the Silver Age. It encompassed three generations:

  1. Generation of ’98: Influenced by the loss of the colonies, these intellectuals focused on Spain’s problems. Key figures included writers Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, Ramón del Valle-Inclán, and Antonio Machado, and artists Ignacio Zuloaga and Joaquín Sorolla. This period also saw the rise of Modernism, exemplified by Antoni Gaudí’s work in Barcelona.
  2. Generation of ’14: This group of intellectuals aimed to educate the masses. Key figures included thinkers José Ortega y Gasset and Gregorio Marañón, and writer Jacinto Benavente, and musicians Manuel de Falla and Joaquín Turina.
  3. Generation of ’27: This generation embraced diverse influences. Key figures included writers Federico García Lorca, Rafael Alberti, and Luis Cernuda, artists Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, and Salvador Dalí, and filmmaker Luis Buñuel. Many members of this generation were affected by the Civil War, with some going into exile and Lorca being assassinated.

This period also saw international recognition for Spanish scientists like Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Severo Ochoa, and scholar Américo Castro.