Sociolinguistics: Language and Society
Chapter 19: Sociolinguistics
Speech Communities and Sociolinguistics
A speech community is a group of people who share norms and expectations regarding language use. Sociolinguistics studies the linguistic features with social relevance for these communities. The term sociolinguistics broadly refers to the study of the relationship between language and society, a vast area of research developed through linguistics interacting with other academic disciplines.
Social Dialects
While traditional dialectology focused on rural speech, the study of social dialects concerns speakers in urban areas. Social class defines groups of speakers with shared linguistic features. The two main groups are typically middle class (more education, non-manual work) and working class (less education, manual work). Thus, working-class speech constitutes a social dialect. The terms upper and lower further subdivide these groups based on economics, with upper-middle-class speech as another social dialect (or sociolect).
As in all dialect studies, specific language features are relevant in analyzing social dialects. These include pronunciations, words, or structures used differently by working-class and middle-class speakers. Class is the social variable, and the pronunciation or word is the linguistic variable.
Personal Dialects and Social Markers
While individual life experiences create unique speech patterns (a personal dialect or idiolect), we tend to sound like others with similar educational backgrounds and occupations. The linguistic variable (r) can have opposite social status implications in different locations, illustrating how speech sounds function as social markers.
Other pronunciation features also serve as social markers. Pronouncing -ing with [n] instead of [ŋ] (e.g., sittin’, drinkin’) is a stable indicator of lower class and less education across the English-speaking world, typically associated with working-class speech.
Speech Styles and Style-Shifting
The basic distinction in speech style is between formal and informal use (also called careful and casual style). Style-shifting is changing from one style to another. Overt prestige explains speech changes toward forms more frequent among those perceived as having higher social status. Covert prestige, a hidden positive value associated with a speech style, explains why some groups don’t style-shift as much as others.
Speech Accommodation
Speech accommodation is our ability to modify our speech style toward or away from the perceived style of our interlocutor. Convergence reduces social distance by using forms similar to the other person. Divergence emphasizes social distance.
Registers and Jargon
Register is a conventional way of using language appropriate in a specific context (situational, occupational, or topical). A defining feature of a register is jargon, the specialized vocabulary associated with a specific field (e.g., plaintiff, suffix). Jargon connects insiders and excludes outsiders.
Slang and Taboo Terms
While jargon is used within established social groups, slang (or colloquial speech) is used outside higher-status groups, often by younger speakers. Slang is subject to fashion, distinguishing group members. Slang terms can age quickly (e.g., groovy, rad, wicked, dope). Slang use varies within younger groups, including taboo terms, which are avoided for religious, politeness, or behavioral reasons.
African American English (AAE)
African American English (AAE) (also Black English or Ebonics) contrasts with other social varieties based on speakers’ historical origins. Social barriers like discrimination and segregation create differences between social dialects. The most studied form of AAE is African American Vernacular English (AAVE). Vernacular refers to non-standard spoken language used by lower-status groups. AAVE shares features with other non-standard varieties like Latino English and Chicano English. In AAVE, be in “He don’t be smokin’ now” communicates habitual action, implying he has stopped smoking or it’s no longer a habit.