Russian Revolution and World Wars: Causes and Impacts
Item 8: The Russian Revolution
The economy and Russian society were the most backward in Europe, and the political system was outlined by the absolute power of the Tsar. The regime rested on three pillars:
- The nobility, who had the power of the land.
- The senior administration and military.
- The Orthodox Church, whose supreme leader was the Tsar himself.
During the reign of Alexander II, a series of economic and administrative reforms were attempted. One of the most notable was the abolition of the feudal system and serfdom of peasant serfs. In theory, they had personal freedom but had to pay heavy compensation to former masters. Following the attacks on Alexander II, attempts at reform were permanently abandoned.
In the late 19th century, economic modernization continued with a limited industrialization process, restricted to certain areas, producing large industrial complexes and increasing tourism. This industrial development led to social changes, giving rise to new urban middle and working classes, while the rural population remained predominantly. In the new middle class, opposition factions appeared against the Tsarist regime, which posited political changes.
Opposition to Tsarism
Organized opposition to the Tsarists claimed political freedoms and profound social and economic changes. Populists emerged, seeking to create a revolutionary consciousness among the peasantry and calling for the extension of agrarian socialism based on the collectivization of land. Populism and anarchist failures formed a terrorist organization that killed Tsar Alexander II.
Later, a clandestine congress (RSDLP), inspired by Marxist revolutionary principles, was founded and divided into:
- Mensheviks (Russian minority), who argued that Russia must pass through a bourgeois revolution and develop a capitalist economy before embarking on the socialist revolution.
- Bolsheviks (majority in Russian), whose objective was to overthrow the Tsar and establish a provisional revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry.
In 1905, the Revolutionary Socialist Party, or Eser, was formed, heirs of what remained popular, advocating for agrarian socialism and a bourgeois and peasant revolution. By 1905, the liberal bourgeoisie formed the Constitutional Democratic Party, or Cadets, intending to transform the Tsarist regime into a constitutional one where individual rights were respected.
The Revolution of 1905
Causes: Military defeats in the war with Japan and a series of strikes in St. Petersburg by workers and peasants who wanted to present the Tsar with demands to end abuses and recognize rights and freedoms. The Tsar’s guards opened fire on them, causing numerous injuries and deaths, leading to the name “Bloody Sunday.” Underground political parties wanted to overthrow the Tsarist regime.
Implications: Finally, the Tsar agreed to a serious awareness of civil liberties (freedom of conscience, expression, assembly). A representative government was created with a parliament, the Duma, elected by broad suffrage. Farmers were confident that the Duma would conduct genuine agrarian reform, and workers expected improvements in their lives and work. However, the reforms were very limited, and the Tsar’s absolute power gradually decreased (the Duma had very limited legislative power). When the Duma failed, political repression soon returned (authoritarianism), compounded by the continuing crisis of the Tsar’s government and the influence of courtly cliques.
The country’s situation worsened abruptly with the outbreak of World War I in 1914, in which Russia, allied with France and the UK, faced the Central Powers.
The Revolution of February 1917
Causes: Russia’s military defeats in World War I generated enormous economic difficulties and profound social unrest. On February 23, 1917, there was a strike at the arms factory in Petrograd, demonstrating against the war and the appalling living conditions. The fall of the fourth Duma by the Tsar also pushed the Liberals to oppose the Tsar, who was left with virtually no support.
Nicholas II abdicated, and the next day, a provisional government was formed (whose members were from the Cadets). This government adopted a series of reforms:
- Declared amnesty.
- Recognized civil liberties and disbanded the hated Tsarist police.
- Promised to deliver the land from landlords to peasants.
- Began to prepare for universal suffrage in elections for a constituent assembly as a step toward a parliamentary republic.
- Recognized the right to independence of Finland and Poland.
However, it kept its commitments in the war and postponed basic reforms such as land reform. The weak government, lacking a police unit, went through several crises.
The crisis with the Bolsheviks: Lenin raised the break with the provisional government and the need to move from the bourgeois revolution to the socialist revolution.
The Kornilov coup d’état: When Kornilov wanted to establish a military dictatorship, he had no choice but to ask for help from the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, who fought against him and persuaded the soldiers to abandon their officers and join the revolution.
The October Revolution and the Birth of the USSR
The coup attempt by General Kornilov reinforced the position of the Bolsheviks, who were released to seize power. They called for an end to the war and carried out the lifting of the Soviets, led by the Bolsheviks. Conditions worsened in Russia due to shortages and administrative chaos. Lenin took advantage of the chaos to take over administrative power.
Item 9: 1920 – Consequences of the First World War
The First World War had profound economic effects, adding to imbalances in international economic and financial relations. The economic consequences were human and material losses. Moreover, the conflict had enormous financial costs. Military spending could not sustain itself through normal tax revenue, so other sources of money were sought. These measures had large economic effects, including price inflation. There was also foreign debt.
The peace treaty also had negative effects, not only imposing large damages on the defeated countries but also fragmenting the great empires of Europe. It also broke boundaries, currencies emerged, and transport systems were disrupted.
In the long term, two other problems were added: the lack of understanding between Europe and the United States on issues of debts among the Allies and the payment of war reparations.
The First World War not only affected the economy of the warring countries but also broke the global economic system, leading to a trade imbalance between industrialized countries. Moreover, the conflict disrupted the international economic system.
- International Economic Policy: Lack of international cooperation between countries in the postwar period.
- Protectionist policy.
- Dawes Plan to improve the economy (in order to stabilize currencies and return to the gold standard).
This increased production, lowered prices, and promoted new industries.
The situation in Europe: France experienced industrial growth, the United Kingdom experienced economic stagnation, and Germany experienced a crisis until 1925, followed by recovery.
The Crisis of 1929
The New York Stock Exchange went bankrupt, leading to the collapse of investment and economic activity in the United States.
Causes: The collapse of the New York Stock Exchange, the famous crash of ’29, was the cause of the economic crisis. But the deeper causes were:
- Crisis in industrial sectors such as textiles, coal, etc.
- Declining purchasing power.
- The construction sector went into crisis due to market conditions.
On “Black Thursday,” an abrupt withdrawal of investment created panic among people, with 13 million shares put on sale with almost zero demand, causing them to lose their value.
Consequences: The Great Depression. Its features were the destruction of savings and a reduction in credit, consumption, and investment. Banks sank as people withdrew their savings, and many loans were not repaid. There was a huge number of unemployed people (rising unemployment), lower prices, and the ruin of the peasants.
As the U.S. was the leading economic power, this crisis soon spread to the world. The United States repatriated its investments in Europe, sinking the economy of that continent. Everyone quickly adopted a protectionist policy that dramatically reduced international trade.
The Second World War
Origins and Causes: Two reasons were the expansionism of fascist dictatorships and the economic crisis of the thirties.
The first initiatives of Nazism:
After the First World War, in the thirties, every nation wanted to maintain national sovereignty (the people were above all). To maintain national sovereignty, the League of Nations was created, which opposed territorial occupation and was primarily created to maintain peace and prevent a new war.
Root causes of the Second World War: The crisis in the crash of ’29 and weak political and democratic systems.
Immediate causes: The essential elements of Hitler were:
- The supremacy of the Aryan race, leading to xenophobia, racism, etc.
- Hitler’s concept of “living space,” which involved territorial expansionism, leading Germany to occupy territories of other countries.
Phases of War: The war started when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. That’s when Britain and France reacted, creating two sides:
- Axis countries: Germany, Italy, and, at the beginning of the war, the USSR.
- Allied countries: France, the United Kingdom, and later the U.S.
1st Blitzkrieg: In this phase, the Allied countries tried at all costs to end the war but, at the same time, were arming themselves (for precaution). Germany invaded Poland, and Britain declared war on Germany.
2nd Phase of Resistance: Some countries were neutral, but Germany did not respect them and invaded them. Some countries resisted the Nazi nation. At the same time, in the East, Japan was occupying territories in Asia. The U.S. accused Japan of this and decreed a trade embargo on China and Japan. In response, Japan attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. This caused the United States to enter the war. Four days earlier, Germany and Italy had declared war on the U.S.
End of the War: In 1944, the defeat of the German system began with the replevin of German troops in Normandy, regaining the territories of Belgium, France, and German occupation.
In 1945, the Nazi regime broke down completely. Berlin was taken by the Allied army. At the end of this month, Hitler committed suicide, and Germany signed the surrender of Nazi Germany.
At the same time, in the East, Japan was closed off by the U.S. Because Japan did not surrender, the U.S. decided to use the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered, and the war ended.