Rise and Evolution of Liberalism in 19th Century Spain
The Genesis of Liberalism
The spread of liberalism stems from Enlightenment ideology and the revolutionary experiences of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
1. Political Liberalism
Principles of liberalism include:
- Defense of the legal equality of all citizens before the law.
- Defense of individual freedom, evolving from a limited concept to a universal one encompassing economic and political spheres.
- Legitimacy of political power based on the general will, denying divine origin and placing sovereignty in the people and the nation.
- Division of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial.
- Supremacy of the constitution, outlining citizens’ rights and duties.
In practical terms, liberalism led to:
- Creation of centralized administrative structures.
- The state as the bearer of national sovereignty, exercising political domination.
- The emergence of political parties, initially as schools of thought led by a leader, coalescing around parliamentary groups.
2. Divisions within Liberalism
In Spain, the divisions within liberalism, forged during the struggle against absolutism, became evident during the Liberal Triennium. By the second third of the 19th century, two main parties emerged:
Doctrinal/Moderate Liberalism
Defined by a focus on order and characterized by:
- Shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes.
- Censitary suffrage (limited voting rights).
- Emphasis on the security of persons, property, and private ownership, favoring authority and order.
- Support for a centralized state and a Catholic confessional state.
Key leaders: Narváez, Murillo, and Bravo.
Progressive/Radical Liberalism
Considered champions of freedom, advocating for:
- National sovereignty, with the Crown as an arbiter.
- A centralized state with greater autonomy for local authorities.
- Individual liberties.
- Extension of voting rights, though not universal suffrage or full democracy.
- A more secular society and separation of church and state.
Key leaders: Mendizábal, Espartero, and Prim.
In 1849, a progressive split led to the Democratic Party, advocating for:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Confiscation policies.
- Respect for basic rights.
- Formation of militias.
- State intervention, especially in education.
In 1868, the Democrats further divided, giving rise to the Federal Republican Party, defending:
- A republican form of government.
- Separation of church and state.
- Secularism and opposition to the army’s political influence.
Within the Republican Party, two trends emerged:
- Unitary (favoring a unitary republic).
- Hardliners (favoring a federal republic).
In 1854, a moderate faction split and joined with progressive elements to form the Liberal Union, led by O’Donnell, uniting to govern.
3. The Trajectory of Liberalism in Spain and its Opposition
The introduction of liberalism in Spain occurred between 1808 and 1833, marked by a revolutionary character and:
- Progress and setbacks in establishing a constitutional monarchy.
- Abolition of the seigneurial system.
- Emergence of a class society based on wealth.
Key stages include:
- The War of Independence (1808-1814) against Napoleon, paving the way for reform proposals through the General and Extraordinary Cortes in Seville and Cadiz. This period saw the first instance of Spanish liberalism and the Constitution of Cadiz (1812).
- Liberalism coexisted with other political forces: Absolutists (defenders of the ancien régime), French-style liberals influenced by the Enlightenment, and Jovellanos’ faction, favoring a constitutional order to prevent absolutism’s return.
- The conflict between absolutists and liberals intensified during Ferdinand VII’s reign, with three stages: six years of absolutism, the Liberal Triennium, and the Ominous Decade.
- Ferdinand VII initially restored the Old Regime. His succession in 1833 triggered a civil war, pitting defenders of Maria Cristina’s regency against supporters of Carlos María Isidro (Ferdinand VII’s brother), a battle between liberals and absolutists.