Religious Unity and Social Structure under the Catholic Monarchs
Imposing Religious Uniformity in Spain
The monarchy of the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC) faced religious diversity where conflicts were imminent. The imposition of the Catholic faith was intended to unite the people. The name Catholic Monarchs characterizes the persistence of this situation at the time of its imposition.
Reforming the Catholic Church
The first steps toward reform were taken by Cardinal Cisneros within the Catholic Church itself. This reform targeted the higher clergy, seeking to eliminate practices such as:
- Nepotism
- Simony
- Prevarication
For the lower clergy, Cisneros improved and consolidated their training and Christian morality.
The Tribunal of the Inquisition
The central instrument for enforcing uniformity was the Tribunal of the Inquisition, which had been established by religious authority in the thirteenth century. While the Inquisition did not originate with the RRCC, it was strengthened in Castile and became a crucial mechanism for control and religious unity. Its primary function was the persecution of heretics, especially converts.
It is estimated that the total number of victims reached about 50,000 people until its demise in the nineteenth century, but what set it apart was its notorious severity.
The Expulsion of the Jews (1492)
One of the first major decisions in defense of religious unity was the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. This decision stemmed from the desire to prevent the Jewish community from remaining a privileged group that was simultaneously rejected by society. This act marked the end of the persecution that had begun in the Middle Ages.
It is estimated that 150,000 people were expelled from Castile and Aragon (around 30,000). Meanwhile, 50,000 agreed to be baptized, joining the 150,000 who had converted previously.
Types of Converts
There were generally three types of converts:
- The Extremists: Those who embraced Christianity with fervor and formed part of the Spanish mystical tradition.
- The Lukewarm: Those who adapted to the circumstances.
- False Converts: Those who secretly continued practicing their original faith until the Inquisition discovered and eliminated them.
The Mudejars and the Conquest of Granada
The RRCC also framed the conquest of Granada as a war against infidels. Cardinal Cisneros pushed for compulsory baptisms, despite what had been agreed upon in 1499. In 1502, the Mudejars of Castile were forced to choose between baptism or exile. By 1518, they were banned from even using their language and maintaining their traditional habits. Those who were exiled became known as Moriscos.
In general, the concept of blood purity (limpieza de sangre) became a prerequisite for social advancement, dividing society between ‘Old Christians’ and ‘New Christians’.
Society and Economy under the Catholic Monarchs
The basic characteristic of society at the time was the legal recognition of the inequality of people. The laws and traditions upheld the clergy and nobility as privileged classes compared to others. The basic economic activity was agriculture, carried out by 90% of the population.
Social Hierarchy and Privilege
The nobility and the Church enjoyed significant privileges:
- They held three-quarters of the land, which was tax-free.
- They played important roles in the kingdom’s administration.
- They received lesser penalties for crimes.
- They were permitted to wear distinctive clothing.
Agriculture and the Power of the Mesta
The nobility and the Church were also part of the *Mesta* (the powerful sheep herders’ guild). The export of wool to Flanders and England was a major economic factor, leading to the strong defense of grazing land over cultivation, as wool was a vital economic activity for the country.
The Plight of the Commoners
Commoners, who made up the bulk of the population (about five million people), were often laborers without property, living in poor conditions and subjected to all kinds of manorial rights. Times of poor harvests frequently triggered subsistence crises, resulting in excessive mortality.
The rise of manors and the facility to create entailed estates (*mayorazgo*) increased the nobility’s control over the land, worsening the living conditions of the commoners. Catalonia was the only region where this trend was contained; through the Sentencia de Guadalupe (1486), issued by Fernando, arbitrary abuses were abolished and the long-lease census (for 20 years) was established.
Urban Centers and Commercial Activity
In contrast to the rural population, cities had far fewer inhabitants. Craft activities were initially limited, and non-agricultural goods were often produced domestically. Still, some commercial cities such as Valencia, Barcelona, Valladolid, Toledo, and Seville exceeded 30,000 inhabitants in the sixteenth century, and craft production became very important.
Guilds controlled the production and distribution of products. The merchant organization structure common in the Crown of Aragon was adopted in Castile starting in 1494 with the establishment of the Consulate of Burgos, linked primarily to the export of wool.