Reign of Isabel II of Spain: A Three-Stage Analysis (1843-1868)
**Isabel II: The True Kingdom**
The reign of Elizabeth II began in 1843 when she was only 13. In 1846, she married her cousin Francis of Assisi of Bourbon, with whom she contracted a marriage of convenience because of pressure from France and Britain. The queen had a number of infidelities that created conflicts between the spouses. We can divide the reign of Elizabeth II into three stages:
- Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
- The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
- The Last Stage of the Reign of Isabel II (1856-1868)
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The decade from 1843 to 1854 is characterized by Isabel’s support for the moderates, led by General Narváez. This excluded the liberals from power, depriving them of political opportunities and pushing them towards violent alternatives. It was a period of apparent stability without internal conflicts. Narváez’s government carried out certain reforms, such as the Constitution of 1845. The Constitution of 1845 was an improved version of the 1837 Constitution, more moderate, denying national sovereignty and precluding any possibility of alliance with the progressives. It consisted of dual sovereignty between the queen and the Cortes, the people’s representatives. The crown restored many powers, restricting those of the Cortes. This new constitution led to dissatisfaction among many moderates who considered it a bit extreme, and among progressives who considered it too moderate.
Other measures of the moderates were:
- The abolition of the military (subtracting military power from the progressives)
- The creation of the Guardia Civil (whose function was to combat banditry, repress urban riots, and provide civil protection)
- Control of freedom of the press by the government
- The new law on municipalities (according to which the government chose mayors through a very limited indirect suffrage to control local insurrections)
- Tax reform (which increased direct and indirect taxes)
- Changing the electoral law (making it more narrow; the vote was now only for 0.8% of the population, 97,000 men)
- The Concordat of 1851 (according to which the Catholic Church was recognized as the one true church; it ended the seizure of church lands, returned land, and gave the church control of education)
- A system of public education (divided into three levels: elementary, secondary, and university education, with free and compulsory primary education that could not be carried out due to lack of financial resources, resulting in 60% of the population being illiterate at the end of the 19th century; education was restricted to private church schools).
It also saw the Second Carlist War (1846-1849), conducted by the son of Carlos María Isidro, Carlos IV. It was caused by the failure of the attempted marriage between Elizabeth II and Carlos. It was waged mostly in Catalonia, although there were isolated conflicts in other parts of the peninsula. It was not as strong as the first Carlist War. It ended with the defeat of the Carlists and the marriage between Elizabeth II and Francisco Asís de Borbón.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
The Progressive Biennium ran from 1854 to 1856 and began following major social unrest in 1854 due to corruption, rising prices, and unemployment. This led to the “Vicalvarada,” a progressive uprising of 2,000 soldiers in Madrid with popular support and some moderate elements. This led Isabel II to hand power to Espartero and O’Donnell. O’Donnell formed the Liberal Union, a center party, and was named Minister of War. He issued the “Manifesto of Manzanares,” with progressive claims such as freedom of the press and the restoration of the military. At the same time, certain actions were carried out, such as the progressive confiscation by Pascual Madoz, whose income was used to finance a rail network to improve the country’s industrialization. In 1856, a new constitution was written, but it was never enacted. Economic reforms were also carried out. This government was a failure because it did not solve the crisis, sparking street riots and the first labor strikes. In this situation, Espartero resigned, and O’Donnell repressed the progressives, facilitating the return of the moderates to power.
The Last Phase of the Reign of Isabel II (1856-1868)
This period is characterized by the alternation in government of moderates led by Narváez, with the support of the crown, and the Liberal Union led by O’Donnell. The Liberal Union ruled until 1856, following the resignation of Espartero. The objectives of his government were the consolidation of the constitutional monarchy, respect for rights and freedoms, the restoration of public order, and reconciliation of moderate and progressive trends. In addition, he replenished a variant of the Constitution of 1845 with an additional agreement that included progressive measures. The moderates, led by Narváez, rose to power that same year and deleted the extra minutes, ending the municipal confiscations, as well as returning to pure conservatism.
In 1858, the Liberal Union, led by O’Donnell, returned to power and was maintained until 1863 in what is called the “Long Government.” The Liberal Union was a unionist party that arose after the demise of the Progressive Party in 1856 and the wear of the moderates. It lacked a well-defined political agenda. Its policy was to promote public works and invest in growth sectors such as railways and mining. During his rule, there was an economic expansion, and efforts were made to regain a colonial empire. There was also a war in Morocco (1859-1861) that was very important patriotically, and expeditions to Mexico and Indochina, where the government won popularity, and General Prim was prominent. O’Donnell resigned in 1863, and there was a period of instability for a year due to the quick succession of parties in power and violent opposition from progressives.
Narváez returned in 1864 and began a conservative policy, suppressing freedoms, censoring the press, and suspending the activity of the Cortes. González Bravo succeeded him on his death in 1868. The moderates lost much prestige, which led to the revolt of the sergeants in San Gil in 1866. They were supported by the people and the progressives and were harshly suppressed, with 66 executions and more than 1,000 prisoners. This action completely discredited the moderates.
In 1866, a crisis occurred with economic factors, including a financial and industrial crisis, a succession of poor harvests, and increased prices, in addition to political factors. Progressives only had violent possibilities of coming to power, and unionists distanced themselves from the moderates after the harsh repression of 1866. There was also government corruption and a loss of power for the monarchy, which was sustained by the army and the nobility.
The Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution was planned and carried out according to the Pact of Ostend, signed in 1866 by liberal democrats and unionists. Its aim was to end the Elizabethan reign and establish a new order (monarchy or republic) adopted by a Constituent Assembly elected by universal suffrage. It was conducted in 1868 by military elites, politicians, intellectuals, and economic figures. The uprising was led by the progressive general Prim, the unionist general Serrano, and Admiral Topete in Cádiz, in addition to grassroots support, so it was an uprising with little bloodshed. They issued the manifesto “Spain with Honor,” establishing the expulsion of Isabel II, the establishment of an interim government with representation from all groups, and the formation of Constituent Cortes elected by universal male suffrage.
The development of the revolution began with the establishment of revolutionary committees in the main towns. Isabel II responded by sending a royal army under the command of General Novaliches, who was defeated by Serrano. Isabel II then left Spain. A provisional government was established in Madrid, with Serrano as regent and Prim as president. Once established, the committees were dissolved, and the military and democratic presidential term began.