Reign of Charles V and Philip II: Spanish Monarchy
The Empire of Charles V
Internal Conflicts, Comuneros, and Germanies
Charles I of Spain and V of Germany, son of Philip I of Austria and Joanna of Castile, inherited a vast empire:
- From his paternal grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I: The territories of the Holy Roman Empire.
- From his paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy: The Netherlands and Franche-Comté.
- From his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand of Aragon: The Crown of Aragon, Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples.
- From his maternal grandmother, Isabella of Castile: The Crown of Castile, the Kingdom of Navarre, and the territories in the Americas.
Early in his reign, two major conflicts arose: the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile and the Revolt of the Germanies in Valencia.
The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)
Charles V’s coronation as emperor in 1519 triggered protests in Castile. The presence of foreigners in high political office, the king’s perceived prioritization of his European lands, increased taxes, and threats to the independence of the Castilian Cortes led to open revolt. Major cities formed Comunidades (districts) composed of artisans, merchants, lower nobility, and clergy. This movement, though lacking clear goals, expressed deep grievances. Initially, the aristocracy remained neutral, but the conflict radicalized, with peasant revolts transforming into anti-seigneurial rebellions. The nobility then sided with the king, defeating the Comuneros at Villalar in 1521 and executing their leaders (Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado).
The Revolt of the Germanies
Simultaneously, another rebellion, known as the Revolt of the Germanies, erupted in Valencia. Unlike the Comuneros, this was a social conflict from the outset, pitting the bourgeoisie and artisans against the nobility and the monarchy. Like the Comuneros, this uprising was also suppressed, and its leaders punished.
By 1522, Charles V had regained control, cities were subjected to royal authority, and the nobility’s power was restored.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Iberian Unity
Philip II, born in Valladolid in 1527 to Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, inherited the Spanish throne upon his father’s abdication in 1556 and reigned until 1598. Charles V, recognizing the complexities of the Protestant Reformation in Germany, left those territories to his brother. Philip II later inherited the Portuguese crown and its vast maritime empire in 1580, marking the peak of the Hispanic Monarchy and Iberian unity.
Philip II established the royal court in Madrid in 1561. His domestic policy was marked by centralism and religious intolerance.
Centralism
Philip II’s government was authoritarian, relying on councils and royal secretaries. This created a powerful, centralized, and bureaucratic administration, with the monarch personally overseeing decisions.
Religious Intolerance
Continuing the policies of the Catholic Monarchs, the Inquisition became a tool of repression under Philip II.
Internal Conflicts
- Death of Prince Charles (1568): The crown prince was arrested and died under suspicion of involvement in a succession plot.
- Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras (1568-1570): Humiliating treatment, including prohibitions on their language and customs, along with increased taxes and land expropriation, led the Moriscos of Almeria, Malaga, and Granada to revolt. After two years, the revolt was crushed, and 80,000 Moriscos were expelled from their lands.
- Conflict in Aragon (1590-1592): Aragonese nobility resented royal intervention in their affairs. Philip II’s plan to appoint a Castilian viceroy led to resistance, culminating in the arrest and execution of Chief Justice John Lanuza. This conflict demonstrated the monarchy’s centralizing ambitions.
Foreign Policy
Philip II’s foreign policy mirrored Charles V’s, focusing on maintaining European hegemony, combating France, defending Catholicism, and fighting the Ottoman Empire.
Key Conflicts
- Revolt of the Netherlands: Driven by religious differences and a desire for autonomy, this conflict continued until Dutch independence in 1648.
- Disputes with England: Rivalry over Atlantic control, English support for Protestantism and the Dutch rebels, led to the failed Spanish Armada in 1588.
- Fight against the Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean (occupation of Cyprus and Tunisia) led to the formation of the Holy League (Spain, Venice, and the Papacy). The Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a major Christian victory, halting Ottoman expansion.