Reign of Charles IV, Napoleonic Invasion, and Spanish Resistance
1.1. The Monarchy of Charles IV
Charles IV withdrew from governing ministers and, in 1792, illustrated the power entrusted to a young soldier, Manuel Godoy. The execution of French King Louis XVI prompted Charles IV to declare war on France in coalition with other absolute monarchies. The Peace of Basel subordinated Spain to French interests. Since the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte, Spanish policy vacillated between fear of France and attempts to appease it to avoid confrontation. Partnerships with France led to conflict with Britain, and the Battle of Trafalgar was the most significant milestone, resulting in the destruction of the navy and the loss of almost the entire fleet.
Stressing the financial crisis, Godoy resorted to borrowing, increased contributions, and proposed reforms such as land confiscation. These ineffective measures provoked widespread opposition. The nobility and the Church opposed Godoy’s reforms. Taxes on the peasantry caused popular discontent.
1.2. The Mutiny of Aranjuez
In 1807, Godoy, with the acquiescence of Charles IV, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon, authorizing Napoleonic armies to enter Spain to attack Portugal. In exchange, they agreed on the future allocation of Portugal between France and Spain and the creation of a principality for Godoy himself. The presence of French troops provoked the population. The troops were strategically placed in cities such as Barcelona, Vitoria, and Madrid.
A riot erupted in Aranjuez. The rebels achieved their objectives, but the events revealed a deep crisis in the monarchy. Charles IV wrote to Napoleon, asking for his help to regain the throne. The emperor, reaffirmed about the weakness, corruption, and inability of the Spanish monarchy, finally decided to invade Spain, seize the throne, and annex the country to the Empire.
1.3. The Monarchy of Joseph Bonaparte
Napoleon summoned Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne, where both abdicated in favor of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon appointed his brother, Joseph, King of Spain and convened the Cortes to approve a constitution that would dismantle the old regime and ratify Joseph I’s appointment. The new Bayonne Code recognized Spanish equality before the law, taxes, and access to public office. Joseph Bonaparte sought to liquidate the former regime, specifically abolishing the seigneurial system, confiscating church lands, and ending primogeniture and mortmain. This reform had little support and faced complete misunderstanding. For a large part of the Spanish population, the new government was illegitimate. Moreover, the violent actions of Napoleon’s troops turned the bulk of the population against the new monarch.
2.1. The Popular Revolt and the Formation of Juntas
On May 2, 1808, a crowd spontaneously rose against the French presence. The revolt was brutally suppressed by troops under General Murat, but its example spread throughout the country. The population rose against the French invasion, and armed defense Juntas emerged. Initially, the Juntas were local and consisted of prominent advocates of Ferdinand VII. Shortly after, the need for coordination led to the creation of provincial Juntas, which assumed sovereignty. In September 1808, the Juntas sent representatives to Aranjuez to form a Central Junta to coordinate the fight and lead the country. It was a radically new form of government. Floridablanca and Jovellanos were the most illustrious members of the Junta, which recognized Ferdinand VII as the legitimate King of Spain and assumed authority until his return. The Junta fled to Seville and then to Cadiz, the only city that, with British help, resisted the French siege.
2.2. Resistance: Sieges and Guerrillas
The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm expectations that Napoleon’s invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resistance in cities such as Zaragoza, Tarragona, and Girona immobilized part of the French army and prevented progress towards the east. Furthermore, the defeat of the invaders at Bailén had an immediate impact: it prevented the conquest of Andalusia and forced Joseph I to leave Madrid. Napoleon moved into Spain, and his progress was unstoppable. Joseph I returned to Madrid, and in 1809, French domination extended throughout Spanish territory. Resistance to the invasion was carried out by spontaneous, popular guerrilla groups. Their members were farmers, artisans, and students, although their leaders tended to belong to the educated elite: the military and clergy. The guerrillas harassed the army: they destroyed facilities, interfered with movements, and attacked supply convoys. In 1812, the course of the war was affected by Napoleon’s campaign in Russia, which forced him to withdraw thousands of troops. Spanish troops and guerrillas, backed by General Wellington’s British army, achieved victory at Arapiles, a turning point. Joseph I definitively left Madrid, and Napoleon decided to end the conflict with Spain and allow the return of Ferdinand VII (Treaty of Valençay).
2.3. Social, Political, and Ideological Attitudes
The French invasion forced different ideological currents to take sides. A minority of Spaniards, known as afrancesados, including intellectuals and senior officials, collaborated with Joseph I’s monarchy. Mostly from enlightened despotism, they were linked to its reform program, and many were exiled at the war’s end. The bulk of the Spanish population formed the Patriotic Front, which opposed the invasion. This camp united very different positions. Most of the clergy and nobility wanted a return to absolutism, defending Catholic tradition and religion and rejecting all social change. Some enlightened individuals thought that with Ferdinand VII’s return, a program of reforms and modernization could be undertaken. Finally, liberals saw the war as an opportunity to change the political system, establishing a liberal system based on a constitution as supreme law, the division of powers, and the abolition of estates and guilds’ privileges. However, much of the population engaged in a war of defense and resistance against the invaders, and most defended the return of Ferdinand VII.