Post-WWII Europe: Conferences, Cold War & Division of Germany
The Yalta Conference (February 1945)
As Germany was losing the European war, Allied leaders met at Yalta to plan post-war Europe. Despite differences, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill agreed on several matters:
- Stalin would enter the war against Japan.
- Germany would be divided into four zones: American, French, British, and Soviet.
- War criminals responsible for genocide would be hunted down and punished.
- The “Big Three” would join the new United Nations to maintain peace.
- Eastern Europe would be a “Soviet sphere of influence.”
The main disagreement was the future of Poland.
The Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945)
A second conference was held in Potsdam in July 1945. Several changes since Yalta affected relations between the leaders:
- Stalin’s armies occupied most of Eastern Europe, establishing communist governments. The U.S. and Britain opposed this. Stalin argued it was a defensive measure.
- America had a new president, Truman, who was more anti-communist than Roosevelt.
- The Allies tested an atomic bomb, which Truman informed Stalin about.
Disagreements:
- Germany: Stalin wanted to cripple Germany; Truman didn’t want to repeat the Treaty of Versailles’ mistakes.
- Reparations: The USSR, devastated by war, wanted compensation from Germany; Truman disagreed.
- Soviet Policy in Eastern Europe: Truman became increasingly unhappy with Soviet intentions.
The conference ended without full agreement. By 1946, Eastern European countries had communist governments loyal to Stalin. Churchill described the border between Soviet-controlled countries and the West as an “Iron Curtain.”
Stalin Tightens Control:
Communist governments were established throughout Eastern Europe, and Stalin tightened his control. Secret police imprisoned opposition. In 1947, Stalin set up the Cominform to coordinate Eastern European communist parties.
The Cold War
By 1946, the wartime alliance had broken down, replaced by suspicion and accusations. The U.S. and USSR distrusted each other, increasing weapons stockpiles and engaging in a propaganda war. This tension and recrimination became known as the Cold War.
Contrasting Systems:
- USSR: Elections with only communist candidates; state-owned industry; lower standard of living than the U.S.; communist state; individual rights less important than society.
- USA: Free democratic elections; capitalist, privately-owned industry; individual rights protected; strong anti-communist sentiment.
The West’s Reaction
Western powers were alarmed by Stalin’s takeover of Eastern Europe. They had agreed to a “Soviet sphere of influence” but not complete communist domination. Truman saw it as the spread of communism, while Stalin saw it as ensuring security. By 1948, only Greece and Czechoslovakia in Eastern Europe were not communist-controlled, and even Italy and France seemed vulnerable.
Greece:
After the German retreat in 1944, Greece had rival monarchist and communist factions. The British supported the monarchists, but in 1946, communists attempted a takeover, leading to a civil war. The British couldn’t afford the war, so Truman intervened, and by 1950, the royalists were in control.
The Truman Doctrine:
The U.S. would provide aid to countries threatened by communism, aiming to contain its spread.
Marshall Aid:
Europe’s economy was ruined, owing $11 billion to the U.S. Churchill described Europe as a “rubble heap.” Marshall proposed $17 billion to rebuild Europe. Congress initially hesitated but approved the plan after Czechoslovakia’s communist takeover in 1948. The aid was generous but also served American self-interest by creating new markets. Stalin saw it as an anti-communist measure to weaken his hold on Eastern Europe.
Why Did the Soviet Union Blockade Berlin?
In 1948, the Allies combined their German zones into West Germany, which began to recover economically. Stalin, fearing a resurgent Germany, blockaded all supply lines to West Berlin in June 1948, aiming to force the Allies out. The Allies responded with the Berlin Airlift, supplying the city by air. By May 1949, Stalin reopened communications, realizing the blockade had failed.
Why Was NATO Set Up?
The Berlin Blockade raised the possibility of war. In April 1949, Western powers signed an agreement forming NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) to work together for mutual defense.
A Divided Germany
Germany was divided into two nations: West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) in May 1949 and East Germany (German Democratic Republic) in October 1949.
A Powerful Symbol:
Germany remained divided for 41 years. Berlin was a symbol of Cold War tensions: a democratic oasis for the West, an invasive cancer for the Soviets.
A Cold War Pattern:
The Berlin Blockade established a pattern of Cold War confrontations: suspicion, obstruction, propaganda, and a tense balance of power, stopping short of direct war.