Political Landscape of Spain: Regency of Maria Cristina to Alfonso XIII (1885-1902)
The Regency of Maria Cristina of Habsburg and the Rise of Alfonso XIII
In November 1885, Alfonso XII died, leaving Maria Cristina of Habsburg as regent. The need to ensure the stability of the regime led the two leaders, Cánovas and Sagasta, to establish an agreement known as the Pact of Pardo. They pledged support to the regency and facilitated the shift in government, promising not to overturn legislation passed by the other while in power. Both parties complied with the agreement, and the regular alternation overcame the king’s death. Maria Cristina always respected the decisions of governments. However, the Pact of Pardo exacerbated political corruption and distorted the popular will, as there was little trust in the parliamentary regime.
Political Developments Between 1885 and 1902
During the 17 years of the regency (1885-1902), the alternation of power between Cánovas and Sagasta continued with the same regularity as before. Election results were agreed upon between the two leaders and manipulated if necessary, using the network of chiefs and widespread illiteracy. However, since 1890, electoral distortions began to crumble with the establishment of universal suffrage, the distribution of the press, and the emergence of parties outside the shift: Republicans, Socialists, and the working-class movement.
- Between 1885 and 1890, Sagasta’s Liberal Party ruled during what was called the Long Parliament, as it was the only government that exhausted the time limit fixed in the Constitution. Sagasta’s government launched a more open political agenda, with reforms that led to an expansion of press freedom, the restoration of academic freedom of association (which allowed the expansion of the labor movement and non-turnist parties), a new Civil Code enshrining a social order based on the primacy of property, the recovery of trial by jury, and the new electoral law of 1890 that established universal male suffrage. This did not have much impact initially due to electoral manipulation, but it allowed Republicans and Nationalists to enter parliament.
- Between 1890 and 1892, Cánovas’ Conservatives ruled and passed the Tariff Act of 1891, which established strict protectionist policies due to the economic crisis in Europe. This caused a price increase and a return to street protests.
- The Liberals returned to rule from 1892 to 1895. The highlight of their term was a draft reform of the administration and government of Cuba, which was eventually withdrawn due to opposition. Months later, in February 1895, an insurrection broke out, leading to the war in Cuba. Public opinion at the time believed that the Regent needed a strong man to carry out a warmongering policy in Cuba. Cánovas returned to rule between 1895 and 1897 but could not continue with the Cuban conflict because he was assassinated in 1897. The government continued under Francisco Silvela, but divisions ended the Conservative government.
- In 1901, Sagasta ruled again and had to manage the disaster of ’98. Exhausted by political and personal wear, he died in 1903. This marked the disappearance of the two great leaders who had starred in Spanish political life. By then, in 1902, Alfonso XIII became king at 16 years old, beginning a new reign.
Political Opposition: Regionalism and Nationalism
The opposition was primarily formed by:
- The anarchist movement (Federation of the Spanish Region), some of whom opted for direct action and attacks.
- The socialist organizations (PSOE, UGT), defenders of the conquest of political power by the working class.
- Republicans (Radical Party, Federal Republican Party), with low electoral support.
- Nationalists, particularly strong in Catalonia (Unió Catalana) and the Basque Country (PNV), who claimed historical rights to facilitate increased independence and self-government.
Anarchism
In 1875, after the Restoration, the labor movement went underground and split into two streams: socialist and anarchist. Anarchism was reorganized in 1881 with the founding of the Federation of the Spanish Region, well-established in Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, and Andalusia. Anarchism was divided into two groups: a majority opting for union activism and protest, and a more radical minority opting for direct action, such as strikes and attacks. This led to a wave of attacks against kings, presidents, and heads of government (General Martínez Campos, Cánovas, Alfonso XIII, Canalejas), increasing the spiral of violence, as the authorities’ response was indiscriminate repression of anarchism.
Socialism
Socialism was organized in Madrid in 1874 around a group of typographers who, together with other intellectuals and artisans, founded the Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) in 1879. Its first program pursued the conquest of power by the working class, the abolition of social classes, and the transformation of private property into collective property. In 1888, the General Union of Workers (UGT), a socialist-inspired union, was founded in Barcelona. In 1890, the first of May was celebrated, following the slogan of the Second International. In 1891, the PSOE won its first four councilors in large cities, and its policy of opposition to the war in Cuba (its motto was “either all or none”) increased its popularity and membership.
Republicanism
During the Restoration, Republicanism was divided into many irreconcilable groups, although two key parties were the Radical Party (Ruiz Zorrilla) and the Federal Republican Party (Figueras, Pi y Maragall, and Castelar). Political action was limited to election periods, and they scored between 10 and 20 seats with the support of the urban middle classes, thanks to the introduction of universal suffrage.
Nationalist Parties
The nationalist parties emerged with force during the Restoration. Until then, provincial or nationalist claims were channeled through federalism and republican Carlism. Nationalist movements claimed historical rights for Catalans, Basques, Valencians, Galicians, and Andalusians. It was strongest in Catalonia and the Basque Country due to linguistic distinctions that cemented national sentiment and a developed bourgeoisie in which nationalist ideology took root.
- In Catalonia, it arose regarding intellectuals like Valentí Almirall and Prat de la Riba, who joined the Unió Catalanista in 1892. Their essentially bourgeois program did not propose secession from the Spanish state but a federal system with self-government.
- The Basque nationalist movement emerged in 1895 when Sabino Arana founded the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) around a group from Foral Bizkaia. Their initial proposals were quite radical, proposing secession from Spain. However, they softened their stance to gain the support of the bourgeoisie, renouncing separatism and connecting to Christian ideology while distancing themselves from the more reactionary Carlist ideology.
- Galician, Valencian, and Andalusian nationalism developed in the early twentieth century.
These opposition groups acted outside the Canovist system, and their participation was marginal. However, by 1900, they played a fundamental role in social reforms and political regeneration, despite many obstacles to success.