Plato: Knowledge, Virtue, and the Path to Happiness
Plato: Two Types of Knowledge
According to Plato, being and knowing are correlated. The degree of knowledge corresponds to the degree of being: perfect, true knowledge corresponds to a perfect being, while imperfect knowledge is less rigorous and reliable. The value of knowledge is based on the permanence of the being of things. We observe how things change, but what changes is not the true essence of things. True being is not perceptible by the senses; it does not change, die, or disappear. Plato distinguishes these types of knowledge:
- Sensitive Knowledge: Deals with the material world, perceived through the senses. This includes what Plato called “shadows” or figures that form in water and on the surfaces of bodies.
- Rational-Discursive Knowledge: Mediates between the sensitive and the intuitive. It transcends the immediacy of the sensible but retains images of terrestrial and sensitive objects. The subject attains clarity and evidence about the objects. Plato likely had mathematics, especially geometry (the Platonic model of science), in mind.
- Intuitive Rational Knowledge: The realm of pure ideas, representing a dialectical overcoming of earlier stages. Here, the subject reaches pure ideality, devoid of materiality. This is the domain of dialectic, pure science par excellence. It involves the predicate of a reality that is the truth – predicate ontology and knowledge, a proposition, or a statement that is logical truth.
The first case distinguishes true reality from apparent, unreal, or nonexistent reality. These two forms of considering truth are not always clear in common usage. However, skeptical thinking opposes the possibility of knowing truth, arguing that human knowledge cannot grasp reality. Christians and scholastics found a solution by placing truth in divine knowledge, where God’s knowledge and reality coincide.
In a rationalist and idealist sense, logical truth must necessarily correspond to the ontological. Logical truth, as knowledge of objective truth, finds its greatest exponent in scientific truth.
Virtue and Happiness
Man’s true good, happiness, must be attained through the practice of virtue. Plato accepts the Socratic identification of virtue with happiness and knowledge. Lack of virtue is not a perversion of human nature; man seeks good and happiness for himself. However, ignorance of the good can lead to inappropriate actions. Only those who know the idea of good can act appropriately, both publicly and privately.
According to Plato, evil deeds are not done on purpose, but rather out of ignorance. In this sense, the cardinal virtue of prudence is the ability to recognize what is truly good and conducive to happiness, and the means to achieve it.
Plato identifies four main virtues:
- Wisdom
- Courage
- Temperance
- Justice
He establishes a correspondence between each virtue, the different parts of the soul, and the social classes of the ideal city. Plato conceives of virtue as a harmony of the three parts of the soul, leading to happiness. When the soul acts appropriately, justice and happiness are achieved, and man is virtuous, harmonious, fair, and happy. The rational soul should be prudent and guide the irascible (courageous) part. Both should control the concupiscible part. Because Plato has an absolute conception of the Good, the function of the rational soul remains fundamental in man’s practical life. Once a man possesses this knowledge and *arete* (excellence), he reaches full happiness.