Topographic Surveying: Methods and Techniques
Direct and Reverse Intersection in Topographic Surveying
In surveying, points B2 and B1 perform a visual on points we aim to survey, and then on the next point on the itinerary, B3. We continue this way until the final point in the case of a framed route, or the point of departure in the case of a closed traverse. A section is the distance between two vertices of the itinerary. A section is not considered the distance between the base and references.
Direct Intersection: This consists of determining
Read MoreAutomatic Control Systems: Techniques, Drivers, and Digital Advancements
Control Systems
A control system is a rational and systematic set of equipment and human intervention, allowing the operation of a controlled system. It seeks to:
- Eliminate the influence of disturbances
- Ensure the stability of the process
- Optimize the process
Basic Automatic Control or Regulation Techniques
These techniques are based on feedback (feedback or closed loop):
- Proportional-Derivative (does not act alone)
- Integral (does not act alone)
- Mixed: PI, PD, PID
- All or nothing
- Floating
- Proportional in time,
Business Terms and Definitions: A Comprehensive List
Business Terms and Definitions
Financial Terms
Income Budget
The budget which sets out estimates of the likely demand for and value of the firm’s sales.
Interest Rates
The additional cost for borrowing money.
Liquidity
The measure of how close an asset is to cash.
Loans
Borrowing money from the bank.
Long-Term Liabilities
Debts that have longer than a year to be paid back.
Loss Leaders
A low price on a product to attract customers.
Margin of Safety
The difference between the actual level of output and the break-
Read MorePioneering Figures and the Scientific Method
Galileo Galilei
Galileo was undoubtedly one of the greatest scientists of the scientific revolution. He was the first person to study the sky with a telescope. He discovered craters and mountains on the Moon. He also found the moons that orbited Jupiter. He was also interested in how falling objects behaved, so he studied mechanics. Galileo also conducted experiments, wrote theories, and made observations. Along with all his achievements, he even invented the thermometer.
Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton
Read MoreStatistical Variables and Data Analysis Exercises
Exercise 1: Identifying Qualitative and Quantitative Variables
Indicate which variables are qualitative and which are quantitative:
- Favorite Food (Qualitative)
- Profession you like (Qualitative)
- Number of goals scored by your favorite team last season (Quantitative)
- Number of students in your Institute (Quantitative)
- The eye color of your classmates (Qualitative)
- IQ of your classmates (Quantitative)
Exercise 2: Identifying Discrete and Continuous Variables
Indicate which variables are discrete and which are
Read MoreUnderstanding Surveying Levels and Measurement Errors
Components of a Surveying Level
The image below illustrates the components of a typical surveying level:
- Ocular
- Reticulum Focus
- Image Focus
- ASA (presumably a brand or model designation) dismantled, with screws
- RS232 serial interface
- Leveling mechanism
- Screw
- Lens with electronic distance meter (EDM) integrated
- Exit measurement beam
- Display
- Spherical level
- Keyboard
- Trigger button
- Switch
- Fine measurement, horizontal
Types of Surveying Levels
Levels can be classified as follows:
- Tilt Levels: These levels are adjusted
Electrolysis: Understanding Key Concepts and Operating Modes
Electrolysis
Electrolysis applies to a reaction which causes a chemical change when an electric current passes through an electrolyte solution. Oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place at the anode, and reduction (gain of electrons) occurs at the cathode.
Electrode Potential
When a conductor (electrode) is placed in contact with an electrolytic solution, a spontaneous electrical potential difference occurs at the electrode-solution interface. This difference is the electrode potential and is measured
Read MoreMedieval Philosophy: New Concepts from Biblical Revelation
While Christian philosophers make use of many concepts used by the Greeks, adapting them to a new vision of reality (being, beyond, causality, soul, immortality, virtue, happiness, etc.), they also incorporate new ways of understanding the world, the fruit of biblical revelation.
1. Monotheism
Christian monotheism, based on the Bible, demonstrates the rationality of the existence of one God. The problem of whether there is one or more gods was addressed in Greek philosophy. The Bible unequivocally
Read MoreRural Spain: Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry & Tourism
Economic Activities in Rural Areas of Spain
Agriculture
Agriculture is a modernized financial sector in Spain. It has evolved from a traditional model into a family farm business model with high investments in technology, machinery, and fertilizers. Crops may be classified according to different criteria:
- Water supply: Rainfed and irrigated
- Land use:
- Extensive: If production per unit area and worker is low
- Intensive: If the output per worker and unit area is high
- Crop diversity: Polyculture and monoculture
- Plant
Rational vs. Pre-Rational Explanations of Reality
Know the Rational
Animals have an instinctive behavior that is innate. Instincts allow them to meet all their needs. Therefore, it is a practical and concrete knowledge.
Human beings have been branded as rational animals. Reason, imagination, and language give a considerable margin of freedom to be open to different possibilities for action. Humans need to understand and interpret the environment; they need to know.
The Pre-Rational Explanation: Magic and Myth
The first explanation is the irrational:
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