Sociology’s Origins, Evolution, and Key Currents
Sociology’s Origins and Early Development
Sociology’s exact birth date is unknown, emerging from philosophy, alongside anthropology, psychology, and sociology. It’s believed to have begun around 1750, focusing on standards of living rather than philosophy itself. The period up to 1825 can be considered its gestation or prehistory.
Key Figures and Foundational Ideas
While several figures are recognized as founders, Auguste Comte is noted for his writings on social reality and the need for social rules.
Read MoreEnglish Conditional Sentences, Modals, and Reported Speech
English Conditional Sentences
Zero Conditional
Present simple for general truths and commands.
First Conditional
If + present simple, will + infinitive. Possible future events.
Example: If it rains today, I’ll stay at home.
Second Conditional
If + past simple, would + infinitive. Hypothetical situations.
Example: If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.
Third Conditional
If + past perfect, would have + past participle. Hypothetical past situations.
Example: If I had won the lottery, I would have
Read MoreMiguel de Unamuno and Pío Baroja: Life, Works, and Philosophy
Miguel de Unamuno: Faith, Reason, and the Intrahistory
Miguel de Unamuno lived with the internal conflict of wanting to believe but being unable to. For Unamuno, reason and faith were intertwined, and he believed that life was impossible without faith. In 1894, he joined the PSOE, but by 1897, he had distanced himself from the party. Unamuno thought one had to act as if one had faith, even without truly believing.
Early Works and the Concept of Intrahistory
In 1895, Unamuno wrote “Around Casticismo,
Read MoreUnderstanding Legal Decrees in Chile: Enactment and Publication
Punishment, Enactment, and Publication
Once all previous steps have been completed, the President of the Republic approves and enacts the law. It is then an order to be fulfilled as the law of the Republic and is published in the official gazette. The promulgation is made through a Presidential Decree, which mandates compliance as the law of the Republic and its publication.
Between the sanction and promulgation, the Comptroller reviews the constitutionality and legality. If it is approved, it is
Read More19th Century Spanish Economy: Liberal Reforms and Industrialization
19th Century Spanish Economy
Economy XIX: Although liberalism was conservative for the Bourbons, they took steps to dismantle medieval laws of privilege, paving the way for modern capitalist relations as advocated by the bourgeoisie. The nobility and the bourgeoisie governed together for 70 years. In the 19th century, the population grew from 10.5 to 16.6 million, with a coastal distribution. The population began a rural exodus, leaving the countryside for Madrid, the Basque Country, and Barcelona.
Read MorePublic and Private Keys: Understanding Encryption and Security
Public and Private Keys: Understanding Encryption
Public Key
The encryption key is shared publicly with many people. However, only the person or company that created the key can decrypt the information.
Private Key
The creator is the only one who knows how to encode and decode. They can only read or hide the information from those to whom they provide instructions.
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption: Main Problems
Symmetric Encryption
- Requires a secure channel for key exchange.
- Does not guarantee authenticity
Spanish Civil War: Ebro Battle and Republican Defeat
To strengthen his position, Franco implemented army reforms, integrating militia brigades with professional cadres. After recapturing Teruel in February 1938, Franco’s forces launched the Aragon campaign, exploiting Republican losses. This divided Republican territory, isolating Catalonia. Franco then focused on the south, engaging in heavy fighting in Castellon and Valencia, extending to Lleida.
Battle of the Ebro and Occupation of Catalonia (July 1938 – February 1939)
The Republican army, after
Read MoreWastewater Treatment: Processes and Technologies
Wastewater Treatment and Environmental Engineering
Environmental Engineering is the branch of engineering that focuses on protecting the environment from the harmful effects of human activity. It is mainly oriented towards managing and reducing the impact of issues such as waste.
Environmental Biotechnology applies modern biological processes to protect and restore environmental quality.
Coliform are indicator organisms found in the intestinal tract, indicating the presence of fecal contamination.
Wastewater
Read MorePhilosophical Concepts: Definitions and Explanations
Philosophical Concepts
Abstraction
Intellectual process that involves extracting the common properties of a series of objects.
Accidental Property
Quality that completes or perfects an object or being.
Acculturation
Process by which the members of a culture incorporate the features of a different culture.
Aesthetic Attitude
The way in which a person looks at a work of art.
Aesthetic Experience
Experience that takes place when an individual is in the presence of an aesthetic object.
Aesthetic Judgement
To give
Yalta and Potsdam Conferences: Post-WWII Europe
The Yalta Conference (February 1945)
It was clear that Germany was losing the European war, so the Allied leaders met at Yalta to plan what would happen to Europe after Germany’s defeat. Despite their differences, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill agreed on some matters:
- Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan once Germany had surrendered (because the USSR couldn’t be in two fronts).
- They agreed that Germany would be divided into four zones: American, French, British, and Soviet. Berlin was also