Ibn Tulun Mosque: A Masterpiece of Islamic Architecture in Cairo
The Grand Mosque of Ibn Tulun
From his palace, al-Katai, Ibn Tulun governed with authority. His time in Samarra, where he grew up, is remembered for its giant brick mosques, built in the Iraqi tradition. He decided to build a similar prayer structure in Fostat (near the future city of Cairo), of monumental proportions. Unlike the Nile Valley, where stone was widely used since the Pharaohs for temples and tombs, Ibn Tulun used brick and stucco cladding, a technique common in Mesopotamia. The construction
Read MoreCelestina & Garcilaso de la Vega: Spanish Literature
The Celestina: A Controversial Masterpiece
The Celestina sparked controversy upon its release. Fernando de Rojas claimed to have found the first act already written and decided to continue the work, completing it in 15 days during a vacation. The author of the first act remains unknown. We know that Fernando de Rojas was born and died in Toledo and studied law in Salamanca.
The first edition appeared in Burgos in 1499, titled Comedy of Calisto and Melibea. It had 16 acts, each preceded by a summary.
Read MoreRichard Florida’s Insights on Cities, Communities, and Economic Growth
Richard Florida’s Analysis of Cities and Communities
Richard Florida summarizes recent advances in our understanding of cities and communities, providing statistics on people’s behaviors.
The Myth of Geography’s Demise
Florida argues that geography is not dead, as both people and the economy concentrate in specific places. He cites examples like Austin, Silicon Valley, New York City, and California. Places act as incubators for creativity, innovation, and new industries. Place, rather than being an
Read MoreRussian Empire & Revolutions: 1905-1917
The Russian Empire in the Early 20th Century
In the early 20th century, the Russian Empire spanned over 20 million square kilometers and was inhabited by a diverse mixture of ethnicities and cultures. Russians, the largest ethnic group, made up 40% of the population. The Russian language, Orthodox religion, and administration were imposed on other peoples. Tsar Nicholas II, a member of the Romanov family, had ruled all Russian peoples since 1894. Major cities included Moscow and St. Petersburg, which
Read MoreLate Romanticism in Spanish Literature: Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro
Late Romanticism: Mid-19th Century
In the second half of the 19th century, there were great poets who represented a continuation and evolution of Romanticism.
Late Romanticism: Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro
Authors such as Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda or Carolina Coronado eliminated the exaggerated rhetoric and shaped a new lyrical expression fully based on naturalness and balance of images, thoughts, and emotion. In the same metric as other romantics, they combined various meters and stanzas (
Read MoreNationalism and Unification: Germany, Italy, and Britain
Nationalism and Unification in 19th Century Europe
Liberal movements faced suppression from conservative forces, yet the old order could not be fully restored. Monarchs recognized the need to grant concessions to liberal nationalist revolutionaries to prevent societal unrest. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in both Habsburg dominions and Russia. In 1867, Hungarians gained greater autonomy.
Unification of Germany (1866-1871)
In 1848, middle-class Germans attempted to unite the German Confederation
Anti-Centralism and Catalan Nationalism in 19th Century Spain
Anti-Centralism: The Popular “Bullangues” Movements
The Bullangues were revolts of urban workers, artisans, and the petty bourgeoisie, particularly significant from 1830 to 1840. People organized in revolutionary juntas with a program that strongly criticized the Church, those in power, and the mechanization process. They also demanded a decentralized policy, further democratization of the state, and more power for local councils. In 1843, “The Jamancia”, a Bullanga, occurred and ended with much
Read MoreDescartes’ Proof of Material Things and Rules of Method
Existence of Material Things
Once it has been shown that the thinking subject (*res cogitans*) and God (now infinite) exist, we can show the existence of the world (*res extensa*). To prove its existence, Descartes appeals to the existence of God. This reasoning is as follows: Since God has given me a powerful inclination to believe that the ideas I have come from material things, and God would not be God if He were to deceive me, it is therefore clear that there are things that cause within me the
Read MoreKey Moments in Fashion, Film, Culture, and More: 2007-2012
June 2007: Spain Standardizes Women’s Clothing Sizes
Spain revolutionized clothing sizes for women in June 2007. The Spanish Ministry of Education and several fashion companies agreed to standardize women’s clothing sizes, aligning them more closely with the measurements of real women. The primary goal was to promote body positivity and reduce the societal pressure on women to conform to unrealistic body standards.
June 2008: The Pencil Celebrates 150 Years
The pencil turned 150 years old in June 2008.
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: Key Events and Impact
The Development of the Spanish Civil War
A Long and Bloody War
This war pitted the Nationalists against the Republicans. What began as an unsuccessful uprising became a protracted war of attrition.
Key Military Operations
Initial military operations were launched in four directions:
- Securing the Strait of Gibraltar to facilitate the entry of colonial troops into the Peninsula.
- Advancing north from Seville, aiming to conquer Andalusia and link up with rebel troops in Castile, ultimately pushing towards