Organizational Behavior: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding Human Behavior in Organizations
– Organization: social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort.
– Organizational behaviour: the attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations. These attitudes and behaviours and provides insight about effectively managing and changing them
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Management
The art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. Constitutes action
– Classical viewpoint: an early prescription on management that advocated high specialization of labour, intensive coordination, and centralized decision making
-Scientific management: Frederick Taylor’s system for using research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work tasks. Supported the development of written instructions that clearly defined work procedures, and he encouraged supervisors to standardize workers movements and breaks for maximum efficiency
-Bureaucracy: Max Weber’s ideal type of organization that included a strict chain of command, detailed rules, highspecialization, centralized power, and selection and promotion based on technical competence.(단점:strong specialization lose sight of overall goal, strict and impersonal goal lead to adopt minimum acceptable performance level, strong centralization fail to creativity, strong specialization imcompatible with needs for growth-leading to employee alienation from the organization)
-Hawthorne studies: Research conducted at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric near Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s that illustrated how psychological and social processes affect productivity and work adjustment. They were concerned with the impact of fatigue, rest pauses, and lighting on productivity
-hawthorne effect:Hawthorne Effect: is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behaviour in response to their awareness of being observed
-Human relations movement: a critique of classical management and bureaucracy that advocated management styles that were more participative and oriented toward employee needs
-Personality: the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment.
-Interactionist approach: Individuals attitudes and behavior are a function of both dispositions and the situation
– Extraversion: the extent to which a person is outgoing versus shy Neuroticism:degree to which a person has appropriate emotional control Agreeableness :the extent to which a person is friendly and approachable
Conscientiousness :the degree to which a person is responsible and achievement-oriented. Openess: the extent to which a person thinks flexibly and is receptive to new ideas.
big five is Relatively independent , Could be higher or lower in any combination of dimensions, Hold up well cross-culturally, Have a genetic basis
– Process loss: is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members
-Locus of Control: a set of beliefs about whether one’s behavior is controlled mainly by internal and external forces. High internals more satisfied with jobs, commited, earn more money
-Self-monitoring :the extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships. Low self-monitoring people then to act the way they feel and say what they think in spite of their social surroundings
-Positive affectivity: Propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a positive light / tend to be cheerful, enthusiastic, lively, sociable, energetic. PA and NA are not opposite ends
– Proactive behaviour: taking initiative to improve current circumstances or creating new ideas
-Proactive personality: a stable personal disposition that reflects a tendency to take personal initiative across a range of activities and situations and to effect positive change in one’s environment
-Self-Esteem: The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation. Differences between high and low self-esteem has to do with the plasticity of their thoughts, attitudes, and behavior.
-self-efficacy: a general trait that refers to an individual?�s belief in his or her ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations.Motivational trait
-perception:The process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment(a perceiver, a target that is being perceived, and some situational context in which the perception is occurring)
past experiences develop expectation and affect current perceptions
-Perceptual defence: the tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions
-Social Identity Theory: a theory that states that people form perceptions of themselves based on their personal characteristics and memberships in social categories. Personal identity is based on our unique personal characteristics, such as our interests, abilities and traits. Social identity is based on our perception that we belong to various social groups, such as our gender, nationality, religion, occupation, and so on. Your perception of others is a function of how you categorize yourself (e.G., student) and your target (e.G., professor)
-perception 과정: unfamiliar target encountered-openness to target cues-familiar cues encountered-target categorized-cues selectivity-categorization strengthened
-perception is selective, constant and consistent
-Primacy effect: the tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions. Lasting effect (selectivity, constancy)
-Recency effect: the tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions
-Central traits: Personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver. Depends on the perceiver’s interests and the situation.
-Implicit personality theories: personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together
– Projection: the tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others. Can lead to perceptual difficulties
-Stereotyping: the tendency to generalize about people in a certain social category and ignore variations among them (distinguish group-assume traits-perceive)
-Attribution: the process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people?�s behavior
-Dispositional attributions: explanations for behaviour based on an actor?�s personality or intellect
-Situational attributions: explanations for behavior based on an actor?�s external situation or environment
-consistency cues:Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in a behaviour over time (high-dispositional)
-consensus cues:Attribution cues that reflect how a person?�s behaviour compares with that of others(low-dispositional)
-distinctiveness cues:Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations(low-dispositional)
-fundamental attribution error:tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations.
-actor-observer effect:The propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor?�s behaviour differently
-self-serving bias:The tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures
– Halo Effect : we tend to categoriza people as globally positive or negative / seeing someone postively on one trait affects how you see them on other traits
-in-group out group:refer to the fact that under certain conditions people will prefer and have affinity for one’s ingroup over the outgroup
-Trust: a psychological state in which one has a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to actions of another party(ability, benevolence, integrity)
-Organizational Support Theory: employees who have strong perceptions of organizational support feel an obligation to care about the organization?�s welfare and to help the organization achieve its objectives
-Contrast effects: previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer?�s perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of differences between applicants
-Signalling theory: job applicants interpret their recruitment experiences as cues or signals about unknown characteristics of an organization and what it will be like to work in an organization.
-Stereotype threat: members of a social group feel they might be judged or treated according to a stereotype and that their behaviour and/or performance will confirm the stereotype
-value: broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others (motivational, broad tendency, mostly socially enforced by parents, teachers, religions)
-work centrality: how work itself is valued
-hofstede’s study: power distance(unequal distribution of power accepted), uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, individualism, long-term/short-term(LT stress persistence, perserverance, ST stresses personal steadiness and stability, social niceties)
-attitudes:Fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people.(more specific than value)
– Function of what we think and what we feel = product of a related belief and value (belief + value = attitude which leads to behavior)
-job satisfaction: collection of attitudes that people have about their jobs
-Facet satisfaction: tendency for an employee to be more or less satisfied with various facets of the job
-Overall satisfaction: overall or summary indicator of a person?�s attitude toward his or her job that cuts across the various facets
What determines job satisfaction?
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discrepancy :job satisfaction asserts that satisfaction is a function of the discrepancy between the job outcomes people want and the outcomes that they perceive they obtain.
-Distributive fairness: occurs when people receive the outcomes they think they deserve from their jobs
-Procedural fairness: occurs when individuals see the process used to determine outcomes as reasonable
-Interactional fairness: occurs when people feel that they have received respectful and informative communication about some outcomes.
-disposition :suggest that some personality characteristics originating in genetics or early learning contribute to adult job satisfaction
-mood and emotion:Include emotions which are intense, often short-lived, and caused by a particular event such as a bad performance appraisal and includes moods which are less intense, longer-lived, more diffuse feelings 이건 role of affect as a determinant of job satisfaction다른건 calculation, rationality 에 의존한 factor들
-Emotional regulation:Requirement for people to conform to certain display rules in their job behavior in spite of their true mood or emotions. (emotional labor 라고도 불려).
-Emotional contagion:Tendency for moods and emotions to spread between people or throughout a group. So peoples moods and emotions tend to converge with interaction.
Key contributors to job satisfaction
-mentally challenging work,adequate compensation,career opportunitiespeople
Consequences of job satisfaction
-absence from work
-turnover(Resignation from an organization)
-performance(Connection between satisfaction and performance is too complicated because many factors influence motivation and performance besides job satisfaction)
-organizational citizenship behavior: voluntary, informal behavior that contributes to organizational effectiveness(heoping behavior, conscientiousness)
-customer satisfaction and profit(absenteeism and turnover rate decreases leading to seamless delivery of service)
Organizational commitment:
Attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization. This linkage has implications for whether someone tends to remain in an organization
– Affective commitment: Commitment based on a person’s identification and involvement with an organization. People with this stay with an organization because they want to.(role clarity and meeting expectatio)
-Continuative commitment: Commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization. People with this stay with an organization because they have to(leaving would cause personal sacrifice)
-Normative commitment:Commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization. People with this stay with an organization because they think that they should do so(strong identification in organization)
-Continuance commitment is negatively related to performanc
-Downside of organizational commitment:
Can cause conflicts between family life and work life. Have been implicated unethical and illegal behavior. Can cause lack of innovation and lead to resistance when a change in the culture is necessary.
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Workforce diversity
Differences among recruits and employees in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ability, or sexual orientation
이거의 competitive points: cost argument, resource-acquisition argument, marketing argument, creativity argument, problem solving argument, system flecibility argument(less standardized)
Motivation
The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal
Effort–
The strength of the person’s work-related behaviour
Persistence–
The persistence that individuals exhibit in applying effort the their work task Direction–
The direction of the person’s work related behaviour that refer mainly to the quality of work
Goals–
Requires a goal or objective toward which it is directed
-Intrinsic motivation: stems from the direct relationship b/w the worker and the task is usually self-applied (Feelings of achievement, accomplishment, challenge, and competence )
-Extrinsic motivation: stems from the work environment external to the task; usually applied by someone other than the person being motivated (pay, fringe benefit, company policies, supervision )
-Promotion/Compliment can be both extrinsic and intrinsic
-Self-determination theory: a theory of motivation that considers whether people’s motivation is autonomous(intrinsic) or control(extrinsic)
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Performance
The extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization
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Performance and motivation is not 1-1 relationship (other factors involve)
These factors are:
-General Cognitive Ability: a person’s basic information-processing capacities and cognitive resources
-Emotional Intelligence: ability to understand/mange one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions
-Personality, task understanding, chance
Need Theories
The kinds ofneeds people have and the condition under which this motivation occurs thus contributes to performance
needs-behaviors-incentive and goals
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Physiological(must satisfed for the survival/minumum pay and working condition for existence), –
Safety(security,stability, freedom from anxiety/safe working codtions, regualtion, job security, pension), –
Belongingness(social interactions, affection, love, companionship/opportunity to interact with others, frendly supervision,teamwork) –
Esteem(feelings of adequacy,competence,independence,strength/awards, promotions, achievement) –
Self-actualization(desire to develop one’s true potential to the fullest extent, express one’s skills, talents in a manner that is personally fullfilling/jobs with creativty and growth and relaxation structure to permit self-development)
Note that satisfied need is no longer an effective motivator and only self-actualization needs becomes more stronger as they are gratified
ALDEFER’S ERG THEORY
A three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness, growth) that allows for movement up and down the hierarchy
Existence needs
Needs that are satisfied by some material substance or condition (food, shelter, pay, and safe working conditions), resembles Maslow’s physiological needs and to those safety needs that are satisfied by material condition rather than interpersonal relations Relatedness needs:
needs that are satisfied by open communication and the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members, resembles Maslow’s belongingness needs and to those esteem needs that involve feedback from others Growth needs:
needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvement in the work setting, resembles Maslow’s need for self-actualization and the aspects of his esteem needs that concern achievement and responsibility
Similarity bet ERG and Maslow
-as lower-level needs are satisfied, the desire to have higher-level needs satisfied will increase, as more concrete needs are satisfied, energy can be directed toward satisfying less concrete needs, growth needs- become more compelling and more desired as they are fulfilled.
Difference bet ERG and Maslow
-ERG theory does not assume that a lower-level need must be gratified (no rigid hierarchy of needs), The less higher-level needs are gratified, the more lower-level need satisfaction is desired
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
nonhierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation
Need for achievement
Desire to perform challenging tasks well. (prefer personal resposibility, tendency to set difficult goals, desire for feedback, innovation, LT goal involvement, growth or self-actualization need, sales job and entrepreneurial of small business)
Need for affiliation
Desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationship (belongingess or relatedness need)
Need for power
A strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression (self-esteem need, journalism and management) effective managers have a low need for affiliation, a high need for power, and the ability to direct power toward organizational goals
– managerial implications of need theories: appreciate diversity, appreciate intrinsic motivation
-process theories:motivation theories that specify the details of how motivations occurs
Expectancy theory
: a process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as result of their actions on the job First-level outcomes are of particular interest to the organization, such as high productivity versus average productivity.
Second-level outcomes are consequences that follow the attainment of a particular first-level outcome, are most personally relevant to the individual workers and might involve amount of pay, sense of accomplishment, acceptance by peers, fatigue
Instrumentality
The probability that a particular first-level outcome (such as high productivity) will be followed by a particular second-level outcome (such as pay) / also known as the performance -> outcome link
Valence:
the expected value of work outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive
Expectancy
The probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved (also known as the effort -performance link)
Force:
the effort directed toward a first-level outcome
Notice that no matter the valence of a particular first-level outcome, a person will not be motivated to achieve it if the expectancy of accomplishment approaches zero
이거 성공법 :boost expectancy, clarify reward contingency, appreciate diverse needs
Equity theory
A process theory that states that motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. Individuals are motivated to maintain an equitable exchange relationship.
Managers must understand that feelings about equity stem from a perceptual social comparison process in which the worker controls the equation. Thus decides what are considered relevant inputs, outcomes, and comparison persons.
Goal setting theory:
a process theory that states that goals are motivational when they are specific, challenging, when organizational members are committed to them, and when feedback about progress toward goal attainment is provided.
Goal Specificity:
Specific goals specify an exact level of achievement for people to accomplish in a particular time frame Goal Challenge:
Much more personal matter than goal specificity as it depends on the experience and basic skills of the organizational memberGoal Feedback
Specific and challenging goals have the most effect when they are accompanied by ongoing feedback that enables the person to compare current performance with the goal.
Goal Commitment
Individuals must be committed to specific, challenging goals if the goals are to have effective motivational properties이거 늘리는 방법은 increase participation , reward, supportiveness
Goal Orientation and Proximity
Goal Orientation: an individual’s goal preference in achievement situations.
Learning goal orientation
A preference to learn new things and develop competence in an activity by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations Performance-prove goal orientation:
a preference to obtain favourable judgement about the outcome of one’s performance Performance-avoid goal orientation:
Concerned about avoiding negative judgements about the outcome of their performance
Distal goal
Long term or end goal. Too far removed to provide markers of one’s progress, making it difficult for individuals to know how they are doing and to adjust their strategies
Proximal goal:
Short term goal or sub goal. Involves breaking down a distal goal into smaller, more attainable sub-goals thus provide clear markers of progress toward a distal goal and result in more frequent feedback
Managerial Implications of Goal Setting Theory
Set specific and challenging goals and provide ongoing feedback so that individuals can compare their performance with the goal (motivational 해야되)
– High performance goal is most effective when individuals already have the ability to perform task
– When an individuals are learning to perform a novel or complex task, setting a specific, high-learning goal that focuses on knowledge and skill acquisition will be more effective than a specific, high-performance goal or a do-your-best goal
– Proximal goals should be set in conjunction with distal goals when employees are learning a new task or performing a complex one
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Job design
The structure, content, and configuration of a person’s work tasks and roles
-Breadth: The number of different activities performed on a job. Broad jobs require workers to do a number of different tasks
-Depth: The degree of discretion or control a worker has over how work tasks are performed. Deep jobs emphasize freedom in planning how to do the work
-way to increase scope: stretch assignment, job ratation(rotating employees to different tasks and jobs)
CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
-Skill variety: the opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents, corresponds fairly closely to the notion of job breadth
-Autonomy: the freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide work procedures, corresponds to job depth
-Task Significance: The impact that a job has on other people
-Task Identity: The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end
-Feedback: Information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance
CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES
-meaningfulness of work, responsibility for outcomes, knowledge of the actual results of the work
OUTCOMES
-high internal work motivation, high growth satisfaction, high general job satisfaction, high work effectiveness
MODERATORS
-knowledge and skill, growth need strength, context satisfactions
-Job Enrichment: the design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation, quality of working life, and job involvement
-Job Involvement: A cognitive state of psychological identification with one’s job and the importance of work to one’s total self-image
job enrichment scheme
-combining tasks, establishing external and internal client relationships, reducing supervision or reliance on others, forming teams, making feedback more direct
possible problems of job enrichment
-poor diagnosis, lack of desire or skill, demand for rewards, union resistance, supervisory resistance
Work design
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attributes of the task, job, and social and organizational environment
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Motivational Characteristics include task characteristics, which are similar to the core job characteristics of the Job Characteristics Model (autonomy, task variety, task significance, task identity and feedback), as well as knowledge characteristics that refer to the kinds of knowledge, skill, and ability demands require to perform a job
-Social Characteristics have to do with the interpersonal and social aspects of work and include social support, interdependence, interaction outside of the organization, and feedback form others
-Work Context Characteristics refer to the context within which work is performed and consist of ergonomics, physical demand, work conditions, and equipment use.
-Prosocial motivation: The desire to expend effort to benefit other people
-Relational architecture of jobs: The structural properties of work that shape employees’ opportunities to connect and interact with other people.T jobs can be designed so that employees can see the impact of their actions on others. For examples, firefighters and surgeons