Modernism and the Generation of ’98: A Literary Revival
Restoring Opera’s Splendor
Modernism and the Generation of ’98 emerged to revitalize opera after the dominance of realist novels. While Latin American poetry focused on beauty as a refuge, Spanish Modernist lyrics explored intimacy and introspection, seeking a new language and sensibility. This renewed commitment continued throughout the 20th century, marked by a constant exploration of aesthetics and ethics, and a rapid succession of formal and stylistic innovations.
The Rise of Novecentismo and Avant-Garde Poetry
Novecentismo introduced a pure poetry, confronting existential issues with formal rigor. Close to this ideal of purity was the dehumanization of Avant-Garde poetry, which represented the peak of formal experimentation—poetry as an inconsequential game—but, in turn, distanced itself from the human element. Antonio Machado and Juan Ramón Jiménez distanced themselves from the avant-garde and political ideals, unlike the younger Generation of ’27, who later found a balance between tradition and modernity, producing the finest poetry of the Silver Age. The socio-political climate of 1936 demanded a re-humanization of poetry, placing it at the service of ideology during the Civil War. The 1940s witnessed a resurgence of poetry from diverse perspectives.
Rubén Darío and the Essence of Modernism
The 20th century marked the peak of Modernism, spearheaded by Rubén Darío, known for his diverse poetic themes. Darío is essential to understanding Spanish lyric poetry of this era.
Key Characteristics of Modernism
- Return to Romantic distress and discomfort, demonstrating reason’s impotence.
- Search for Beauty and the Ideal, reacting against bourgeois pragmatism.
- Evasion and dreams of happier past times.
- Cosmopolitanism centered in Paris, a source of inspiration for Spanish poets.
- Emphasis on sensory values and delighting the senses.
- Prodigious use of language, enriching poetry through symbolism.
- Metric renewal, including free verse influenced by Walt Whitman.
- Key themes: escapism through dreams and mythology, cosmopolitanism, Romantic distress, love, eroticism, and American and Hispanic themes.
- Influences from Parnassianism, Symbolism, and Impressionism.
Pre-Modernist Writers and the Influence of Rubén Darío
Before Rubén Darío, a pre-Modernist environment existed in Spain, influenced by the Nicaraguan poet. These writers followed the style of Campoamor and Núñez de Arce. Among the full Modernists were Manuel Machado, Francisco Villaespesa, and Eduardo Marquina. Two key figures in Spanish Modernism were Antonio Machado and Juan Ramón Jiménez.
Antonio Machado: A Poetic Journey
Antonio Machado, influenced by Krausist philosophy, met Rubén Darío in Paris. He obtained a French professorship in Soria in 1907, married Leonor (who died young, inspiring Campos de Castilla), and was elected to the Royal Academy in 1927. He defended the Republican side during the Civil War and died in Collioure in 1939. Machado’s humble character and progressive liberalism shaped his poetry, which aimed to capture the essence of things. His work displays deep humanity, rooted in late Romanticism and Symbolism, evolving towards sobriety and density.
Machado’s Poetic Stages
- Symbolist Modernism (Soledades. Galerías. Otros poemas): Explores universal themes of time, death, and God, marked by existential loneliness and melancholy. Favored dodecasyllabic and Alexandrine verses and simple forms like silva.
- Generation of ’98 Influence (Campos de Castilla): Addressed Spain’s decline, Castilian landscapes, and Leonor’s death. Included ballads and short poems.
- Later Works (Nuevas canciones): Showed less longing for Andalusia than Castile. Proverbios y cantares shifted towards conceptual, paradoxical thoughts.
- Post-1924 Poetry: Distanced from avant-garde dehumanization, continued writing poems like “El crimen fue en Granada.”
Juan Ramón Jiménez: A Three-Stage Evolution
Juan Ramón Jiménez began in Modernism, but his extensive work evolved through three stages:
- Bécquer-influenced simplicity.
- Sensitive adoption of Modernism.
- Intellectual stage with formal, conceptual, and emotional concentration.
The Novel’s Renewal
In the early 20th century, the novel, dominant in the late 19th century, underwent a rethinking. Generation of ’98 writers enriched the realist model, including Baroja’s impressionistic and skeptical novels and Unamuno’s dramatic, philosophical works.
The Generation of ’98: Shared Characteristics
The Generation of ’98 shared characteristics such as similar age, self-taught intellectual training, acquaintance with each other, Unamuno’s influence, and a commitment to addressing Spain’s decline. They also shared anti-realism and expressive sobriety.
Key Features of the Generation of ’98
- Focus on Spain
- Existential concerns
- Spanish landscapes and history
- Desire for Europeanization
- Renewal of prose, rejecting rhetoric
- Admiration for Bécquer and Larra
- Influence of irrationalism, vitalism, and existentialism
- Deep subjectivity
Miguel de Unamuno: Exploring Faith and Introspection
Miguel de Unamuno, born in Bilbao, arrived in Madrid in 1880. Faith was central to his work, exploring ways to evade its problems. His novels focused on introspection and self-confession, including Paz en la guerra, Amor y pedagogía, Niebla, Abel Sánchez, Tres novelas ejemplares y un prólogo, and La tía Tula. He was a versatile author, contributing to lyric poetry, essays, autobiography, and drama.
Pío Baroja: Open Structures and Strong Characters
Pío Baroja, a major novelist of the ’98, grouped his novels into trilogies, including Tierra vasca and La vida fantástica. Notable works include El árbol de la ciencia and Memorias de un hombre de acción. His novels feature open structures, short sentences, and a rapid, immediate style. His strong characters are a hallmark of his prose.