Linguistic Evolution: Ebonics, Discrimination, and American English
The LSA Resolution on Ebonics
The process for the Linguistic Society of America (LSA) resolution on Ebonics was rapid. It was suggested on December 30, 1996, drafted by Rickford on January 1, 1997, and unanimously approved on January 3, 1997. The resolution:
- Affirmed the “systematic and rule-governed nature of Ebonics.”
- Pronounced Oakland’s decision to take Ebonics into account when teaching Standard English.
Later, the LSA approved resolutions opposing “English Only” legislation and endorsing language rights, including respect for immigrant and endangered languages.
Pro-Ebonics Testimony and Effectiveness
Testimony was provided by linguists and educators, including William Labov, Orlando Taylor, Robert Williams, and Michael Casserly. It was highly effective; Senator Arlen Specter did not withdraw funding for the Standard English Proficiency (SEP) program and even supported $1 million in research.
Evidence for Vernaculars in Schools
Rickford cites three types of evidence suggesting that a positive response to vernaculars in schools improves student performance:
- The Piestrup (1973) study: Showed that teachers who “built artfully” on children’s language had better results.
- Contrastive Analysis (CA): Programs in Georgia and Illinois showed that comparing Ebonics and Standard English yielded greater progress.
- Bridge/Dialect Readers: Studies showed that teaching children to read first in their vernacular before transitioning to Standard English led to better results.
Language Policy and Linguistic Findings
Rickford argues that sociolinguists should be involved in language policy and that policies should be informed by linguistic findings. However, he emphasizes that more research is required to fill gaps in our knowledge.
Effective Approaches
Two approaches have been found effective: Contrastive analysis and bridge readers. Bridge readers provided reading materials in Ebonics, a transitional variety, and Standard English. Students taught with Bridge showed an average reading improvement.
Linguistic Discrimination
John Baugh’s Research
John Baugh ascertained linguistic discrimination through a controlled experiment using his own linguistic dexterity. He called various landlords in different communities using three different “voices”:
- Standard American English
- An AAVE accent
- A Latino English accent
Because it was the same person calling for the same apartment, any difference in the landlord’s response proved that the discrimination was based on the caller’s voice, not actual qualifications.
Global Scope of Discrimination
Linguistic discrimination is not restricted to African American speakers or the USA:
- Groups: Baugh’s research included calls using names and accents associated with various backgrounds, including Latino, Asian, and people with disabilities.
- Geography: Baugh studied this issue globally and found it is a widespread problem, occurring in Brazil, the Caribbean, South Africa, France, and the United Kingdom.
Historical American English Idioms
Go West
Originally an Elizabethan expression meaning “to die” or “to disappear into an unknown abyss.” In early America, it referred to frontiersmen who disappeared into the West. Later, American cowboys used the phrase to refer to someone who deserted their family or job for a new start.
Let Off Steam (The Mississippi)
This means to get rid of anger, excitement, or energy in a harmless way. In the 19th century, the Mississippi River was the primary route for travel, trade, and prosperity. The language of the river was eventually adopted into everyday English.
To See the Elephant (The Gold Rush)
During the 1849 Gold Rush, city dwellers headed West hoping to get rich. For the “Forty-niners,” the phrase “to see the elephant” came to mean experiencing a catastrophe, a shock, or maturing through reality.
Cowboy Words and Phrases
With at least 5,000 cowboys on the Chisholm Trail, the cowboy became a cultural icon. Contact with Spanish-speaking horse-handlers introduced numerous Spanish words into American English, followed by a flood of cow-related terminology.
Immigration and Language
During the 19th century, New York became the entry point for one of the greatest migrations in history. The term “immigrant” became an American word in 1789 to describe an emigrant.
German Influence
Since 1776, 7 million Germans have migrated to the USA. They contributed many words, such as Bummer, Cookbook, Delicatessen, Ecology, Fresh, Hoodlum, Kindergarten, Nix, Phooey, Rifle, Scram, Spiel, and Yesman, along with loan translations like “And how!” and “No way.”
Italian Influence
Between 1865 and 1920, over 5 million Italians arrived in the USA. Because they often arrived with less formal education, they adopted American English more completely. Their linguistic influence is primarily limited to food terms like pizza, spaghetti, lasagne, espresso, and pasta.
Jewish Influence
Between 1880 and 1910, 3 million Jews from East and Central Europe arrived, many settling in New York City. They significantly influenced American entertainment and introduced terms such as Shlep, Shtik, Kosher, Mensch, Nebbish, Schmooz, and Yenta.
Pidgins and Creoles
Historical Context:
- Slavery: Occurring between the 16th and 19th centuries.
- Rapid migration: Such as the movement of people from rural areas to cities in the 20th century.
- Colonial ports: Where ethnically diverse groups mixed closely together.
- Garrisons: Military posts where ethnically diverse groups lived and worked closely together.