Key Figures and Events in the Evolution of English
**John Wycliffe**
Religious reformer who translated the Bible into a readily accessible English dialect. This contributed to the development of standard English. He made the word of God accessible to the people.
**Chaucer**
Introduced the Chancery Standard, the form of written English used in state documents. It is believed that this dialect contributed to the development of standard English.
**Caxton**
Brought the printing press to England from the Low Countries in 1476. This allowed for multiple copies of printed material to be distributed over large areas, requiring a common dialect readable by everyone.
**London**
Social, political, and commercial center located in the Southern East Midlands. Its geographically central location and cultural importance drew people from all over England, creating a mix of dialects and giving rise to a London dialect that became the standard.
**George Puttenham**
Author of *The Arte of English Poesie*. He wanted to establish one regional variety as a national form, and also a connection between standard formal and eloquent forms of English. He proposed that one language was more prestigious than the other, introducing the discussion of hierarchies in language. This evolved into standard and non-standard discourse.
**Oxford Proclamation**
The first official document in English (1258) after the Norman Conquest. It is the proclamation of Henry III.
**Godwine, Earl of Wessex**
Adviser of Edward the Confessor. His son, Harold, became king when Edward died in 1066, setting in motion the conflicting claims to the English throne that led to Harold’s defeat at Hastings that same year.
**Peterborough Chronicle**
One of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicles*, maintained in English until 1154, showing the transition from Old English to Middle English at a time when there were very few documents in English.
**Edward I**
First king of England after the Conquest (1272-1307) to have a good command of English.
**William the Conqueror**
Duke of Normandy who defeated King Harold at Hastings and became king of England, inaugurating French rule in England for the next 200 years. He replaced most of the native English nobility with Normans. During those years, the rulers of England were primarily monolingual French speakers.
The Loss of Normandy
The loss of Normandy gave the descendants of the Norman invaders a new collective awareness of their insular identity. It established a community of interests with the English-speaking lower classes, which may later have resulted in a reaction against the continental Francophones.
The Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) broke out between England and France, contributing to a sense of English nationalism. The intermittent warfare produced nothing else than a feeling of animosity, coupled with a sense of the inevitability of renewed hostilities.
The Black Death
The Black Death (1348-1350) killed up to 40% of the population, mainly urban artisans and laborers. The severely depleted laboring classes gained political power because their low numbers made them more in demand.
The Peasants’ Revolt
The Peasants’ Revolt (1381) contributed to an increase in the social relevance of the laboring classes and indirectly conferred importance on their native tongue: English.