Karl Marx: Biography, Works, and Influence on Philosophy
1. Karl Marx: Biography and Key Works
Early Life and Intellectual Development
Born in 1818 in Germany, Karl Marx was the son of a liberal Jew who converted to Protestantism. He pursued studies in law, philosophy, and history in Berlin, where he associated with left-wing Hegelians. His collaborations with publications exposed him to social, economic, and political issues, leading him to connect with anarchist groups in Paris and communists and socialists elsewhere. Marx’s radical ideas led to his expulsion from several European cities. Notably, he was a founder of the First International Workingmen’s Association. He died in 1883.
Major Works
- Capital (three volumes): Written in London, this work delves into the economics of capitalism.
- A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
- The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848, co-authored with Friedrich Engels)
- Theses on Feuerbach: This work outlines the critical and practical-revolutionary nature of Marxist philosophy, emphasizing the need to change the world rather than just interpret it.
2. Influences on Marxism
2.1 German Philosophy (Hegel and Feuerbach)
Hegel
Hegel’s followers diverged into right-wing Hegelians, who interpreted his philosophy conservatively, and left-wing Hegelians, who adopted progressive political stances. Marx critiqued Hegel’s assertion that “the real is rational and the rational is real,” arguing that the 19th-century working class’s plight was irrational. Hegel’s dialectical concept—a process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis—was adapted by Marx and applied to history and economics.
Marx also addressed the concept of alienation—becoming estranged from oneself. He argued that human alienation stemmed from economic factors, unlike Hegel’s theological and Feuerbach’s religious interpretations.
Feuerbach
Feuerbach’s anthropological materialism critiqued Hegelian idealism and religion. He argued that God was a human projection, a result of attributing infinite perfections (wisdom, power, and goodness) to a transcendent being. Feuerbach believed that recognizing this projection would lead to self-realization.
2.2 English Political Economy (Adam Smith and David Ricardo)
Marx critiqued economic liberalism, the foundation of capitalism, for its unequal distribution of wealth and worker exploitation. He predicted that capitalism’s internal contradictions would lead to crisis, revolution, and a communist society. However, his predictions about the nature of the revolution and the resulting communist society proved inaccurate.
2.3 French Socialism and Anarchism
Marx contrasted his scientific socialism with the utopian socialism of French thinkers like Fourier, Saint-Simon, and Owen. He criticized their lack of economic analysis, while acknowledging their shared concern for the working class.
2.4 Primary Inspiration
The dire living conditions of the 19th-century working class—long hours, low wages, unsafe conditions, and lack of breaks—were a major inspiration for Marx’s work. Marxism contributed to improving these conditions.
3. Marxist Anthropology: Homo Faber
Marx viewed humans as homo faber (working man), emphasizing productive activity as a defining characteristic. He argued that work should fulfill human needs and be humanizing, but capitalist society alienated workers from their labor, nature, and each other.
4. Marx’s Critique of Capitalism
4.1 Infrastructure and Superstructure
Marx analyzed society through the lens of infrastructure (material conditions) and superstructure (ideological conditions). He argued that the economic base shaped consciousness, not the other way around. The infrastructure comprised the means and relations of production, while the superstructure included political, legal, and ideological systems.
4.2 The Capitalist Superstructure
Marx viewed ideologies—systems of representation like philosophy, art, religion, and law—as tools used by the ruling class to maintain power. He argued that these ideologies legitimized the existing social order and masked reality.
5. Alienation: Economic and Ideological
Marx argued that economic alienation in capitalist society stemmed from workers’ lack of ownership over their labor and its products. This alienation extended to nature and interpersonal relationships. He also addressed religious alienation, viewing it as a consequence of economic alienation.
6. Beyond Capitalism: A Communist Society
Marx believed that capitalism’s inherent contradictions would lead to its downfall. He envisioned a communist society, achieved through a proletarian revolution and a transitional dictatorship of the proletariat, where private property would be abolished and resources distributed based on need.
7. Connections to Other Philosophers
7.1 Precursors: Kant and Hegel
Marx shared Kant’s teleological view of history, though their envisioned endpoints differed. Both were influenced by Hegel, though Marx critiqued Hegel’s idealism. Their views on human nature also diverged, with Kant emphasizing reason (homo sapiens) and Marx emphasizing labor (homo faber).
7.2 Critics: Karl Popper
Popper criticized Marxism as unscientific and morally responsible for oppression in communist regimes.
8. Commentary on “A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy”
This autobiographical text outlines Marx’s intellectual journey and introduces his theory of historical materialism. The central idea is that social reality shapes consciousness. The text details Marx’s critique of Hegelian philosophy, his analysis of capitalism, and his concept of different modes of production throughout history.