Kant’s Moral Philosophy and Hume’s Empiricism
Kant’s Moral Philosophy
Formal and Material Elements
Kant’s moral philosophy divides into two elements. The material element is the object of cognition. It is a posteriori because it is sensitive and appropriate to external experience. The formal element is not an object of cognition. It is known a priori through pure intuitions and pure concepts.
Kant concludes that there are two different functions of reason: pure reason deals with theoretical judgments, and practical reason deals with moral imperatives.
Hume’s Moral Empiricism
Hume’s morality is based on feeling. He rejects the ethics of reason, arguing that reason is unable to move a person. Passion or sentiment determines moral good and evil, duties, and virtue. These are not relations of ideas or matters of fact.
Two Types of Powers
Hume distinguishes two types of powers:
- Cognitive powers present the elements and circumstances of events.
- Emotional powers discover the true moral value of conduct.
Two Types of Errors
Hume also distinguishes two types of errors:
- Errors of fact occur when we ignore the circumstances contributing to an action.
- Errors of law occur when acts do not awaken the feelings they should.
Empiricism vs. Rationalism
Empiricism, in contrast to rationalism, emphasizes the importance of experience. The problem with empiricism is the origin and validity of cognition. Empiricism denies the existence of innate ideas, stating that they come from our experiences. It also denies the existence of universal and timeless truths.
Fundamental Theses of Empiricism
- Explores the scope, value, and limits of human cognition.
- Cognition is not unlimited; experience has its limits.
- Cognition is cognition of all ideas.
In conclusion, empiricism presents a new concept of reason: one that is dependent on and limited by experience.
Kant’s Synthesis of Rationalism and Empiricism
Kant found a synthesis that accepted part of what both empiricists and rationalists claimed. Empiricists were right that cognition requires experience, but rationalists were also right that the subject provides some essential elements for cognition.
Scientific Judgments
Scientific judgments have different types:
- Analytic: The predicate falls within the subject. These are universal, necessary, and not extensive.
- Synthetic: The predicate does not fall within the subject. These are universal, not necessary, and extensive.
- A priori: Truth known without experience. These are universal and necessary.
- A posteriori: Truth known through experience. These are not universal or necessary.
Critique of Pure Reason
Kant divides his work into three parts:
- Transcendental Aesthetic: Analysis of the power of sensibility. Kant argues that sensibility is not passive but actively shapes our perception through the a priori forms of space and time.
- Transcendental Analytic: Analysis of the power of understanding. Understanding makes judgments from sense data through concepts. These can be empirical (from experience) or pure (a priori structures of understanding).
- Transcendental Dialectic: Analysis of the power of reason. Reason uses transcendental ideas (soul, world, God). Kant argues these are useful as regulative principles but cannot provide knowledge of their objects.
Metaphysics as a Problem
Kant denied the possibility of scientific metaphysics because transcendental ideas lack a referent in reality. Metaphysics contains contradictions that show the improper use of these ideas. For Kant, metaphysics is not and never will be a science.
Kant’s Formal Ethics
Kant’s formal ethics focuses on how we act, not what we do. It is an ethics of principle (not empirical), categorical (not hypothetical), and autonomous (not heteronomous). It is based on the self-determination of the will, called the categorical imperative, and on duty.
Three Ways to Act in Relation to Duty
- Contrary to duty (immoral)
- In accordance with duty (legal)
- From duty (moral)
Kant argues that duty is a rational principle with universal validity and necessary force.