Kant and Marx: Key Philosophies and Political Thought
The Practical Use of Reason
The practical use of reason must answer the second question of philosophy.
Kantian Formalism: The Categorical Imperative
Kant was the first philosopher who drew a formal ethics, considering earlier ethics (material) inadequate. Material ethics have a content based on something considered a supreme good and ultimate end for human beings.
Formal ethics is an ethics without content aimed at establishing the form that actions must hold. According to Kant, in determining the moral value of an action, one should take into account how the action was performed. Actions are only morally valid when performed out of duty (moral law). According to the relationship one has with duty, there are three classes of actions:
- Contrary to duty: The individual knows their moral obligation but does the reverse of what is ordered.
- Under the duty: The person knows his duty and does it, but for reasons unrelated to duty.
- Actions of duty: The person knows and meets their obligation because it is their obligation.
Kant’s ethics is summarized in the Categorical Imperative. Kant’s ethics are very strict, and there are never exceptions to the requirement.
The Postulates of Practical Reason
In “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant establishes a failure to achieve a scientific understanding of metaphysics, but through the practical use of reason, one can know things about these issues. With the assumptions, Kant refers to knowledge that can be shown; otherwise, they would lose their meaning. Three postulates:
- Freedom: The existence of moral fact shows that we are free and is the foundation of morality.
- Immortality: The obligation to act should lead to an infinite time to do this; we need a holy will. As biological time is limited, the soul is immortal.
- God: Morality and happiness do not match; one must run the existence of an almighty and benevolent being for actions from duty to be rewarded.
Political Thought
Kant’s conception of history is focused on progress; he thought it was a process of liberation of humanity. This view implies two statements: the first is that in history, there is no recoil, and the second is that historical progress tends to a goal; achieving that goal is a task almost utopian. The course of history is the process by which human dispositions are to be imposed on animals. The final triumph of those provisions will happen when a socio-political order is fulfilled:
- Being an enlightened society in which human beings use reason without being guided by others.
- There is a society in which justice is administered universally, deemed a free citizen, and anyone who respects the laws and makes good use of reason.
- To ensure the freedom of citizens -> a tolerant society.
- That the laws of society are governed by reason and no fear.
- Creating a federation of free states to ensure mutual respect and keep wars away.
Marx
A German philosopher interested in political and socioeconomic issues. He conducted a review of both and proposed an alternative to both; he conceives of philosophy as a tool to help the historical task. Marx’s philosophy receives three influences:
- 19th Century German Philosophy: Germany dominated the idealism of Hegel, which was an idealist interpretation of history. It was criticized by Feuerbach, who created an alternative that maintains that material conditions are more important than ideas, and liberalism had provided a naive vision that dominant class interests obeyed.
Marx agreed with Feuerbach but believed that he had not done enough and criticized Feuerbach’s criticism:
He considered history as static, whereas Marx saw it as something dynamic.
- The critique of political economy: In the 18th century, the modern economy related to capitalism was born, based on two assertions:
- The origin of wealth is labor force.
- The law of supply and demand regulates the economic system.
Marx’s economic theory is a radical critique of liberalism, stemming from two errors that needed correcting.
- A system based on supply and demand produces the exploitation of workers and is linked to their alienation. The worker can only offer the ability to work, which is bought by the owners of production.
- The law of supply and demand leads to a continuous exploitation of the proletariat. Increased competition makes the price of goods cheaper, production costs lower, and causes the working conditions to be worse.