José Ortega y Gasset’s Philosophy and the Crisis of His Time
Historical and Sociocultural Context of Ortega y Gasset
Spain During Ortega y Gasset’s Life (1883-1955)
- 1904-1908: Sunday rest law, right to strike law, and regulating working hours to 8 a.m.
- 1919: Crisis of ’98 and Regeneracionalismo.
- 1931: Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.
- Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and Ortega’s self-exile.
- 1945: Ortega’s return to Spain.
Political Transformations in Spain
- Monarchy of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931).
- Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939).
- Francoist Spain (1939-1975).
Key International Events
- End of the Spanish Empire (loss of Cuba and the Philippines in 1898).
- Rise of the United States as a global power.
- World War I (1914-1918).
- Russian Revolution (1917).
- Rise of Italian Fascism and German Nazism.
- World War II (1939-1945).
- Beginning of the Cold War.
Spanish Society and Culture in the 1920s
Spanish society was divided into:
- Aristocracy (caciques).
- Bourgeoisie (politicians, financiers, and businessmen).
- Middle class (intellectuals).
- Working class and peasantry.
Around 30% of the population was illiterate. The growing political influence of the middle class and increased political participation were seen as threats by the upper class. Culture became more accessible to all social classes, transforming into mass culture. Key figures include historian Sánchez Albornoz, writers Juan Ramón Jiménez and Federico García Lorca, and musician Pablo Casals. The era also saw continuous innovation in art, with avant-garde movements like Cubism, Dadaism, and Surrealism challenging established aesthetic norms. Science also underwent a revolution in fields like biology and physics, with prominent figures like Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Severo Ochoa. However, this scientific progress also brought increased destructive potential.
Philosophical Framework
Influential Philosophical Currents
- Kantianism (particularly the Marburg School).
- Dilthey’s historicism and relativism.
- Husserl’s phenomenology.
- Existentialism (Heidegger, Jaspers, Sartre).
Ortega y Gasset’s Philosophy
The Idea of Philosophy
Ortega’s philosophy aimed to address everything in the universe, both real and unreal, focusing on the totality rather than the individual. He termed this intellectual effort “pantonomy.” Unlike science, which defines its objects of study, philosophy grapples with the unknown totality of existence. Ortega emphasized the philosopher’s need for autonomy, developing thought without preconceived notions. Clarity is essential for philosophy, distinguishing it from mysticism, which embraces the ineffable.
Life as the Fundamental Reality
Ortega’s concept of life is not purely biological but biographical. He saw life as something to be lived within specific circumstances (time, place, family, etc.). The self and its circumstances are intertwined; one cannot exist without the other. Ortega distinguished between “beliefs” (inherited, unquestioned assumptions about reality) and “ideas” (conscious reflections on our surroundings). Ideas, when accepted by the community, become beliefs. Beliefs provide continuity, shaping human life within the limits of the past.
Man as a Project
Ortega viewed man as a historical being, whose life is a project shaped by individual choices. Living involves choosing one’s path, though not necessarily a specific predetermined one. The self is not fixed but develops through choices made within circumstances. Individuals have a “life project” or vocation, the pursuit of which leads to an authentic life. This project requires means provided by the past, highlighting the temporality of life.
Perspectivism
Ortega’s perspectivism emphasizes that reality is viewed through individual perspectives, each valid in its own right. Absolute truth is the sum of all perspectives, unattainable by any single individual. Perspectivism rejects both skepticism and dogmatism, proposing that knowledge is a matter of perspective. Ortega distinguished between “pure reason” (abstract and unable to grasp life’s complexities) and “vital reason” (historical reason), which seeks to understand all aspects of human existence within its historical context.
Generations and History
Ortega viewed society as a project where individuals develop their identity through belonging to a generation (those born within a 15-year span). Generations shape the pace of history. Within each generation, there is a majority (the masses) who conform to prevailing opinions and a minority (the elite) who form their own. The elite inspire the pursuit of perfection, but when this ideal is not met, social unrest and crises of leadership can occur.
Kant’s Problem of Knowledge
Immanuel Kant, a philosopher from a different era, also addressed the problem of knowledge. In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant questioned the possibility of metaphysics as a science capable of providing certain knowledge of reality. He examined mathematics and physics, focusing on synthetic a priori judgments (those that expand knowledge and are universal and necessary). Kant argued that these judgments arise from organizing experience through a priori forms of space and time, resulting in phenomena. Without sensory data, knowledge is impossible, but without the structure of space and time, such data would be meaningless. Things-in-themselves (noumena) cannot be known directly because they lie outside experience. Therefore, metaphysics, which deals with ideas beyond experience, cannot be a science.
Ortega’s The Revolt of the Masses
In Chapter X of The Revolt of the Masses, Ortega addresses his generation, urging them to overcome the crisis of their time and regenerate culture. He seeks truth beyond relativism and rationalism, proposing perspectivism as a way to understand reality. Ortega presents a synthesis of culture and life, rejecting both relativistic skepticism (limited and flawed vision of reality) and rationalist prioritization of culture over life. He argues that each individual’s perspective is unique and valid, contributing to the totality of reality. Ortega criticizes both objective rationalism and subjective relativism, emphasizing the importance of understanding things in their specific circumstances and their relevance to human life.