Industrial Revolution to World War I: 1870-1918
The Second Phase of the Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)
The world entered a new phase of industrialization. The economic leadership of Britain was shared with countries like Germany, the U.S., and Japan.
New Sources of Energy
Electricity and oil supplanted coal. Electricity had applications in industry, transport, communication systems, and lighting. Oil enabled their use as fuel, leading to the appearance of automobiles. The chemical industry developed in Germany, achieving breakthroughs with chemicals like sulfuric acid, soda, and dynamite.
New Industrial Organization
The organization of production was geared towards mass production. This method, known as Taylorism, involved a manufacturing chain where each worker performed a very specific part of the process. Originating in the USA with the Ford Motor Company, it resulted in mass production at a lower cost.
Development of Capitalism
The high concentration of industrial capital stimulated investment. Corporations emerged, in which the capital needed for a company was split into shares. Banks became very important institutions in the development of capitalism. To reduce competition, companies signed agreements to set monopoly prices, leading to the emergence of cartels, trusts, and holdings.
The Labor Movement
The First Workers’ Associations
The first reaction was the Luddite movement (Europe, early 19th century), which opposed mechanization, understanding that machines were responsible for low wages and unemployment. Mutual aid societies (England, late 18th century) acted as economic aid to their members in case of illness or unemployment. Trade Unions (England, 1834) focused on strictly work-related issues, such as the reduction of working hours and better pay. The Chartist Movement (England, 1850) added political demands to labor union claims, but within the liberal system (Universal Suffrage).
Socialism and Anarchism
A new stage in the history of the labor movement emerged. It viewed capitalist society as divided into two classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Socialists, whether utopian or Marxist, created projects of society where individuals were free and equal.
Anarchism
Thinkers like Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin shared three basic principles:
- Radical union of individual freedom.
- Defense of collective ownership.
- Rejection of authority.
They defended action by farmers to destroy the state and create partnerships based on equality. Marxists and anarchists advocated for the working class around the world to fight against capitalism. Socialists founded the Second International in Paris in 1889, which was exclusively socialist.
Imperialism
Concept
Great Britain, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands grew due to the Second Industrial Revolution. Between 1870 and 1914, imperialism ultimately resulted in the distribution of land by the great powers.
Causes
Economic: Based on the continuous increase in the production of all goods and their placement on the market.
Demographic: Despite high growth, the European economy could not employ the entire population. Social conflicts arose due to a lack of work, and immigrants became instruments of colonization.
Political: Zones of occupation or control by the powers in other continents, such as Asia and Africa.
Ideological: The status of a nation depended on the colonies it possessed, leading to the idea of a great empire.
Social Darwinism: The belief in Europe’s civilizing mission, due to its perceived cultural and technological superiority, led to racism.
Conquest and Organization
Colonies were primarily dedicated to economic exploitation and had no government. These colonies were subject to a special arrangement with the mother country, which recognized some autonomy in internal government but imposed a parallel government that reserved the functions of defense and foreign policy. In Africa, Morocco was divided between France and Spain. Britain established a protectorate in Egypt.
The Scramble for Africa
In 1870, the “Scramble for Africa” began. The British and French empires created continuous territories: from north to south for the British, and from west to east for the French. King Leopold II secured a settlement along the Congo River.
Implications
Introduction of European Developments: Advances were made in colonial ports, including wagons, railways, and bridges. Schools were established, reducing illiteracy.
Economic: The economic interests of the settlers had the support of aristocratic groups and the local bourgeoisie. Most of the indigenous population remained subdued, and their living conditions worsened.
Social and Cultural: New colonial models introduced an intense pace of work, urban life, and new values. This phenomenon of acculturation was more pronounced in Africa than in Asia.
The First World War
Between 1914 and 1918, the First World War took place.
Causes
Colonialism and Nationalism: Rivalry between colonial powers existed. Germany had few colonies and wanted to impose itself on France and Spain, nearly starting a war. Peoples under Turkish rule had achieved independence, including Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro. Austria wanted to dominate the region, while Russia used the excuse of protecting Serbia and enslaved peoples. Germany competed with Great Britain for control of shipping lanes and international trade.
Arms Race and Alliances: An arms race began, and systems of military alliances were created. In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy signed the Triple Alliance. In 1907, Russia, Great Britain, and France signed the Entente.
War: On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire was assassinated by a Bosnian student. Great Britain, to support its French ally, invaded Belgium.
The Organization of Peace
In January 1919, a peace conference opened in Paris with 32 countries. The decisions were made by the USA, France, Great Britain, and Italy.
Treaties: The most important treaty was the one with Germany, which was declared the sole culprit for the outbreak of the war.
The New Map of Europe
The old European empires were broken. The Russian Empire lost most of its coastline on the Baltic and gave large tracts of land to the new Poland. The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated, and new states emerged in its place: Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria.
The League of Nations
A new organization, The League of Nations (SDN), was created to guarantee peace. However, Germany and Italy saw the League of Nations as an organization of the victors, lacking the means to enforce its decisions.