Induction, Art Periods, and Scientific Knowledge
Induction and Its Validity
Inductive arguments are not logically valid in the same way deductive arguments are. While a true premise in a deductive argument guarantees a true conclusion, this is not the case with induction. True premises in inductive arguments can lead to false conclusions without creating a contradiction. The justification of induction itself is problematic, as it often relies on circular reasoning. One approach to address this issue involves using probability, suggesting that inductive generalizations are likely true rather than absolutely true.
Critique of Naive Inductivism
The naive inductivist assumption that “science starts with observation” is flawed. Two people observing the same object under the same conditions may have different visual experiences, even if their retinal images are identical. A viewer’s perception is influenced by their culture, experience, expectations, and knowledge. Furthermore, theories often precede observation statements, meaning observations are made within the framework of a pre-existing theory.
Art Periods According to Lewis Mumford
British philosopher Lewis Mumford identified three stages in the development of technology: eotechnic, paleotechnic, and neotechnic. These stages, while sequential, overlap and interpenetrate. Each represents a period of humanity, originating in specific regions and employing distinct means of energy utilization. The eotechnic phase is characterized by water and wood, the paleotechnic by coal and iron, and the neotechnic by electricity and alloys.
Factual Sciences
Factual sciences deal with real objects that occupy space and time. Examples include natural sciences, which focus on nature, and social sciences, which concern themselves with human affairs.
Technique in Humans and Animals
From a natural perspective, technique is not unique to humans but a tactic of life. The difference between human and animal technique is quantitative rather than qualitative.
Observation Sentences
There are two types of observation sentences:
- Unique: Derived from observing a phenomenon at a particular time and place.
- General: Referring to all events of a given type across all times and places.
For singular observation sentences to establish universal generalizations, no accepted observation statement should contradict the derived universal law.
Two Characteristics of Art
- Ability/Skill: Dexterity in execution.
- Efficacy: Effectiveness in achieving a purpose.
The Formal Object of Science
The formal object of science is its real object of study—everything it investigates.
Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge
Scientific knowledge is:
- Factual: Based on facts and respects them to a degree.
- Transcendent: Goes beyond facts, producing and explaining new ones.
- Analytical: Approaches problems systematically, breaking them down into components.
- Specialized: Focuses on specific problems within natural, social, or formal sciences.
- Clear and Precise: Strives for clarity and accuracy in its results.
- Communicated: Expressed to those trained to understand it.
- Testable: Subject to verification through experience.
- Methodical: Planned and organized.
- Systematic: A logically connected system of ideas.
- General: Places facts in general patterns.
- Legal: Seeks and applies laws of nature and culture.
- Explanatory: Explains facts in terms of laws and principles.
- Predictive: Makes predictions about the past and future.
- Open: Open to revision and new ideas.
- Useful: Provides tools for both good and evil.
Herbert Marcuse’s Critique of Society
Herbert Marcuse criticized the unidimensional view of man in advanced industrial society. He argued that this society is false, presenting a facade of abundance, freedom, and tolerance while concealing its true nature of individual control and conformism. Marcuse highlighted societal weaknesses like consumerism, social exploitation, and the arms race. He did not advocate a return to an idyllic past but rather sought to eliminate the irrational aspects of technical progress.