History of the European Union Treaties
Treaty of Rome (1957)
On March 25, 1957, two treaties signed in Rome established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). EURATOM, less prominent than the EEC, sought to create the conditions for a thriving nuclear industry.
Political Objective
The treaties aimed for gradual political integration. A customs union, often called the “Common Market”, was envisioned, abolishing internal tariffs by 1968 and establishing a common customs tariff for external goods. Further integration led to the Single European Act of 1987 and the unified market of 1992.
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
The CAP ensured free movement of agricultural products within the EEC and implemented strongly protectionist policies, leading to the creation of an agricultural fund.
Other Provisions
- Prohibition of monopolies
- Common policies in transport
- Trade privileges for member states’ colonial territories
Institutions
Following a “functionalist” approach, several institutions were established:
- The Commission
- The Council
- The European Assembly (later the European Parliament)
- The Court of Justice
- The Social Economic Committee (later renamed)
The responsibilities of these institutions were later expanded and refined.
Single European Act (1986)
This act marked the first amendment to the EEC’s founding treaties. Under Commission President Jacques Delors, it emphasized:
- Creating a market without frontiers
- Promoting economic and social cohesion
- Developing a European research and technology policy
- Strengthening the European Monetary System
- Initiating a European social space
- Taking significant action on environmental matters
Institutional Changes
- Formalized the existence of the European Council
- Strengthened the role of the European Parliament
Key Measures
- Established a single market by 1992, ensuring free movement of goods, persons, services, and capital.
- Coordinated monetary policy, paving the way for economic and monetary union.
- Integrated social rights (worker health and safety), research and technology, and environmental concerns.
- Promoted economic and social cohesion through Structural Funds: European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF), European Social Fund (FSE), and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty, 1992)
A cornerstone of European integration, the Maastricht Treaty expanded the initial economic objective of a common market towards political unity. It officially adopted the name “European Union.”
Three Pillars
- Community Pillar: Encompassed existing EU treaties and reforms, with institutions holding supranational powers (e.g., common market, EMU, CAP).
- Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): Focused on intergovernmental cooperation in areas like terrorism, immigration, and judicial cooperation.
- Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): Addressed joint action in foreign policy through intergovernmental cooperation.
Key Features
- Introduced European citizenship.
- Set the stage for the Euro by 1999, involving capital liberalization, economic policy coordination (“convergence criteria” for inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, deficits, and public debt), and the creation of the European Central Bank (ECB).
- Established the Cohesion Fund to support environmental projects and transport infrastructure in less developed member states.
- Expanded Community powers in economic and industrial policy, transport networks, and education (e.g., Socrates and Erasmus programs).
- Reinforced the powers of existing institutions and created the Committee of the Regions.
- Established Europol and incorporated the Schengen Convention.
Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
This treaty amended the EU Treaty and the treaties establishing the European Communities. While it advanced European unity, it faced criticism for not adequately addressing institutional adaptation, political unity, and the “democratic deficit” (lack of popular participation and transparency).
Key Changes
- Emphasized freedom, security, and justice, based on principles of liberty, democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. Incorporated the 1998 Charter of Fundamental Rights.
- Strengthened social policy, with the UK joining the Social Agreement and respecting the Community Charter of Social Rights. Enabled EU action on worker health and safety, working conditions, social inclusion, and gender equality.
- Addressed sanctions policy and defense, incorporating the principle of non-discrimination.
- Integrated the Schengen Agreements, though the UK, Ireland, and Denmark opted out.
- Enhanced police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters under the JHA pillar.
Treaty of Nice (2000)
The Treaty of Nice aimed to reform the institutional structure for EU enlargement but faced criticism. It introduced a double majority voting system (member states and population) and increased the European Parliament’s seats to 732. However, it did not resolve the size of the Commission or effectively address sanctions against member states.
Treaty of Lisbon (2009)
The Treaty of Lisbon amended the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community, aiming to strengthen democracy and improve the EU’s ability to address global challenges.
Key Changes
- Created a stable presidency (two and a half years).
- Established the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
- Linked the Commission President’s election to parliamentary elections.
- Introduced qualified majority voting with a “double majority,” removing veto power in 40 areas.
- Reduced the Commission’s size.
- Increased the European Parliament’s legislative and budgetary powers.
- Gave the EU a single legal personality and recognized the right of states to leave.
- Expanded EU decision-making powers in areas like climate change, sport, tourism, and humanitarian aid.
- Reinforced security, justice, and freedom, streamlining decision-making and promoting solidarity among member states.
- Developed the concept of European citizenship, enhancing citizen involvement and rights.
- Addressed unemployment, environmental protection, and consumer rights.
- Set long-term defense objectives, envisioning a common defense policy and the integration of the Western European Union (WEU).