From Tsarist Russia to Soviet Power
The End of Tsarist Russia
In the early twentieth century, Russia remained an absolute monarchy. The Tsar ruled with the support of the nobility, the Orthodox Church, the army, and the bureaucracy. Meanwhile, peasants and workers organized themselves into soviets (councils).
The February Revolution of 1917
Russia’s entry into World War I in 1914 exacerbated existing tensions and fueled opposition to the Tsar. A Provisional Government was established, seeking to create a liberal political system, and the Tsar was forced to abdicate.
Soviets of workers, peasants, and soldiers, often with their own armed militia (Red Guard), formed across the country. These soviets increasingly aligned with the Bolsheviks, who advocated for withdrawing from the war, improving workers’ living conditions, distributing land to peasants, and recognizing national minorities.
The Bolshevik Revolution (1917-1921)
The October Revolution of 1917
The Provisional Government struggled to maintain control amidst social and political instability. The influence of the soviets grew, holding their first congress in June.
Bolshevik leader Lenin, returning from exile, outlined his program in the April Theses: ending the war, redistributing land, granting control of factories to worker committees, recognizing the autonomy of nationalities, and transferring power to the soviets.
A Bolshevik-led popular demonstration in July failed, forcing Lenin back into exile. The Provisional Government also faced a coup attempt by a more conservative faction of the army, led by General Kornilov. Weakened and lacking support, the Provisional Government fell after the Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace on October 25th.
The Bolshevik government quickly negotiated Russia’s exit from the war with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, redistributed land to peasants without compensation to former owners, and recognized national minorities.
The Civil War and War Communism
Supporters of the Tsarist regime (landowners, military officers, the Orthodox Church) and proponents of a liberal political system launched a counter-revolution. The country was divided, with the counter-revolutionaries forming the White Army and the Bolsheviks forming the Red Army. Foreign powers, fearing the spread of revolution, aided the counter-revolutionaries.
The three-year civil war ended with a Bolshevik victory, largely due to Trotsky’s organization of the Red Army. To support the war effort and supply cities, the government implemented War Communism, nationalizing industry, collectivizing agriculture, and requisitioning grain from farmers.
Lenin broke with the liberal-bourgeois state model, establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, centralizing power in the Communist Party.
The New Economic Policy and the Formation of the USSR
In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) to revive the devastated economy. The state maintained control of transport, trade, banking, and large industries, but allowed for some private enterprise. This led to the resurgence of a wealthier class (bourgeoisie).
The USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
The USSR, a multinational, multiethnic state, was formed, encompassing much of the former Tsarist empire. The 1921 Constitution outlined the political system:
- Republics had autonomy in domestic affairs (judicial organization, education, healthcare, language, and customs) and the right to secede.
- The Supreme Soviet, elected by the republics’ soviets, held legislative power.
- The Supreme Soviet appointed the Presidium (headed by the head of state) and the Council of People’s Commissars (a council of ministers).
In reality, power resided with the Communist Party (CPSU), controlled by the Central Committee and its Secretary General.
The Stalinist Dictatorship (1929-1953)
The Rise of Stalin
After Lenin’s death, Stalin, the Secretary General of the CPSU, consolidated power. He advocated for “socialism in one country,” prioritizing the consolidation and strengthening of the revolution within the USSR.
Stalin’s Totalitarian Dictatorship
Stalin established a personal dictatorship, using several methods to maintain control:
- Cult of personality: Promoting a heroic image of himself while erasing and distorting the history of his rivals.
- Control of the Communist Party: Eliminating dissent and transforming the soviets into instruments of the party.
- Repression and terror: Thousands were sent to gulags (concentration camps), primarily in Siberia, enduring inhumane conditions and forced labor. Stalin also exerted strict control over culture, promoting traditional styles and themes that glorified the revolution and its leaders.
The Construction of an Economic Power
A Planned Economy
Stalin implemented a centrally planned economy, with Five-Year Plans setting economic objectives and allocating resources. All economic activity came under state control, eliminating private property.
Agricultural Collectivization
The first Five-Year Plan mandated the collectivization of land. Kulaks (wealthy peasants who prospered under the NEP) resisted and faced harsh repression. Agriculture was reorganized into collective farms (cooperatives) and state farms (using hired labor), both emphasizing mechanization and modern techniques.