French Revolution: Core Causes and Major Phases

Posted on Mar 27, 2025 in History

The French Revolution: Causes and Phases

Causes of the Revolution

Economic Factors

  • A severe French state financial crisis resulted from heavy debt incurred during the Seven Years’ War and the assistance provided to the American colonists against Britain.
  • Poor harvests increased bread prices to levels unaffordable for the rural and urban lower classes.
  • Increased state spending exacerbated the huge public debt. Attempts to increase taxes and extend them to the privileged estates (nobility and clergy) failed.
  • France, with approximately 26 million inhabitants, saw over 90% belonging to the Third Estate, the only group paying significant taxes.

Social Factors

  • The nobility clung to their privileges and opposed reforms proposed by Louis XVI’s finance ministers, which aimed to make the nobility and clergy pay taxes.
  • The resistance of the privileged classes led to the failure of these reforms, paving the way for revolution.
  • The bourgeoisie desired a greater political role, challenging the nobility, and sought to utilize popular groups for support.

Political and Ideological Factors

  • The Enlightenment provided the ideological foundations necessary to challenge and overthrow the Old Regime, spreading its ideas throughout society.
  • The independence of the Thirteen Colonies of North America demonstrated that Enlightenment ideals could be put into practice.

Phases of the Revolution

Call of the Estates-General (1789)

Facing financial collapse, the King was forced to convene the Estates-General. The Third Estate demanded sweeping reforms and the creation of a French constitution. The people of Paris assaulted the Bastille, and riots began in cities and the countryside.

The Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

The National Assembly transformed into the Constituent Assembly, initially dominated by factions like the later-defined Girondins and Jacobins. Feudal privileges were abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted. This assembly proclaimed the Constitution of 1791, establishing a constitutional monarchy with a separation of powers and census suffrage (limited voting rights).

The First French Republic and War (1792-1795)

Key Events (1789-1792)
  • Storming of the Bastille: July 14, 1789
  • Abolition of Feudalism: August 4, 1789
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: August 26, 1789
  • Civil Constitution of the Clergy: 1790
  • Constitution of 1791

Problems arose during this period:

  • The Pope condemned the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, dividing French clergy into sworn (‘juring’) and non-sworn (‘refractory’) groups.
  • Political challenges arose from émigrés (nobles and others who fled France).
  • King Louis XVI’s ambiguous attitude and eventual flight attempt undermined the constitutional monarchy.
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

The first political clubs, precursors to parties, emerged. The Jacobins (led by figures like Robespierre) represented radical views, while the Girondins (led by figures like Brissot) were more moderate. Faced with the threat of invasion by foreign powers, the revolution radicalized, leading to the assault on the Tuileries Palace (August 10, 1792) and the suspension of the monarchy.

The Convention or Reign of Terror (1792-1795)

The monarchy was formally abolished (September 21, 1792), and the First French Republic was declared. The National Convention was elected by universal male suffrage (though turnout was low). Initially led by the Girondins, King Louis XVI was tried and executed in January 1793. Political and social tensions increased due to foreign military threats, although the French achieved a key victory at Valmy.

The Girondins fell from power in June 1793, leading to the rise of the Jacobin government dominated by the Committee of Public Safety. A more radical constitution (Constitution of 1793) was created but largely unimplemented. Robespierre and the Committee unleashed the Reign of Terror, a period of intense repression lasting about a year, aimed at eliminating counter-revolutionaries.

The Thermidorian Reaction (1795)

A reaction against Robespierre‘s excesses led to his overthrow and execution (July 1794). The Terror ended, and more moderate forces, including former Girondins, returned to power. The Constitution of 1795 was established, featuring:

  • Census suffrage (restricting voting rights again).
  • Separation of powers:
  • Legislative: A bicameral legislature (Council of Elders and Council of 500).
  • Judiciary: Judges elected by the people.
  • Executive: The Directory, consisting of five members chosen by the Council of Elders.