Franco’s Spain: Transformation, Opposition, and Transition (1957-1975)
Policy Evolution
A. Technocracy: The Rise of Opus Dei (1957-1969)
This phase marks the institutionalization of Franco’s regime and the liberalization of the economy. In 1957, ministers from Opus Dei, known as “technocrats,” joined the government. They dismantled the autarkic system, opening Spain to neoliberalism, foreign investment, and economic growth, starting with the 1959 Stabilization Plan.
A) Institutionalization of the Regime
Between 1957 and 1965, the technocrats reformed public administration for efficiency. The 1958 Sixth Fundamental Law compiled existing laws, and the Seventh Organic Law of the State addressed succession, separating Head of State and government, establishing the monarchy, and allowing limited popular participation. Franco chose Don Juan Carlos de Borbón as his successor.
B) Political Strategy of Openness
Despite technocratic dominance, other groups emerged, including hardliners and those favoring openness, led by Fraga and Solís. Fraga’s 1966 Press Law abolished censorship but had limitations. The 1969 Matesa scandal, involving technocrats and Opus Dei, exposed divisions within the regime.
C) Foreign Policy
From 1957, Franco aimed for closer ties with Europe, the U.S., and reclaiming Gibraltar. Spain gained international acceptance. Despite initial disagreements, technocrats favored joining the EEC (now EU), achieved in 1986. Relations with the U.S. involved bilateral agreements for bases. Spain granted independence to Equatorial Guinea and Ifni but faced challenges in the Sahara.
B. Tardofranquismo: The Decline of the Regime (1969-1975)
After naming Juan Carlos as successor, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, as vice president, aimed for a peaceful transition.
a) Carrero Blanco and the Failure of Openness (1969-1973)
Carrero Blanco formed a new government after the Matesa scandal, focusing on economic growth, foreign relations (EEC, China, GDR), and educational reform (1970 Villar Palasí Act). However, projects like the Associations Law failed. ETA’s growing activity led to the 1971 Public Order Act. Carrero Blanco’s assassination by ETA in 1973 caused a government crisis.
b) Government of Arias Navarro
Arias Navarro succeeded Carrero Blanco, initially promising openness (the “spirit of February 12”), but retreated due to opposition from hardliners. Franco demanded the dismissal of reformist minister Pío Cabanillas, ending the opening attempt.
c) Illness of the Dictator
Franco’s illness in 1974 raised the succession issue. Relations with Don Juan worsened, and Franco forbade his return to Spain.
d) Adverse Circumstances for the Regime
- Economic Crisis of 1973: Rising prices, unemployment, and social instability.
- Decolonization: The Sahara issue and the Green March led to its division between Morocco and Mauritania.
- External Factors: Portugal’s Carnation Revolution, pressure from the EEC, the U.S., and the Church for democratization.
- Growth of ETA Terrorism: Increased political instability.
2. Socioeconomic Evolution
A. Spanish Economy
a) The Stabilization Plan (1957-1959)
Economic difficulties led to a policy shift. In 1957, technocrats Alberto Ullastres (Trade) and Mariano Navarro Rubio (Finance) implemented the Stabilization Plan (July 21, 1959), reducing spending, opening the economy, and attracting foreign investment. It caused short-term hardship but stabilized prices and laid the foundation for growth.
b) The Spain of Developmentalism
From 1961, Spain experienced strong economic growth (“Spanish miracle”) based on industrial expansion, low wages, and foreign capital. Tourism boomed. Development Plans (from 1963) aimed to regulate growth and reduce regional imbalances but failed. Growth continued until the 1973 crisis. A preferential agreement with the EEC was signed in 1970.
c) The Global Economic Crisis and Agony of the Regime (1973-1975)
The 1973 oil crisis and Carrero Blanco’s assassination triggered the regime’s decline. Economic policies were permissive, leading to inflation, unemployment, and a negative balance of payments. Weaknesses included energy dependence, technological dependence, high indebtedness, and inefficient public enterprises.
B. Social Transformation
Economic development brought significant social changes, including rural exodus, population growth (baby boom), modernization, and the rise of the middle classes. Consumerism replaced traditional values. The incorporation of women into the workforce was notable.
3. Political Opposition to the Regime
A. Aside from the Technocratic Stage to 1973
Opposition to Franco diversified and broadened. Social opposition included worker protests (leading to the formation of CCOO in 1964) and student protests. The Catholic Church distanced itself from the regime after Vatican II. Political opposition was led by the PCE (Communist Party of Spain), with its entrism strategy, and the PSOE (Socialist Workers’ Party of Spain). Other groups included monarchists, Christian Democrats, and nationalist parties (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya, Basque Nationalist Party). ETA emerged in 1959 and adopted armed struggle in 1968.
B. Reorganization of the Political Opposition on the Eve of the Dictator’s Death (1974-1975)
Opposition forces organized for a democratic transition.
A) Outside Political Forces
These included royalists supporting a return to constitutionalism, the PSOE (with Felipe González as Secretary General from 1974), and the PCE (led by Santiago Carrillo), advocating a democratic communism.
B) The First Steps to Form Alliances
In July 1974, the Democratic Board (PCE, CCOO, etc.) called for a “rupture” with the dictatorship. In June 1975, the PSOE formed the Democratic Convergence Platform, advocating a “reform” or “pact breaking.” Both agreed on ending the dictatorship and constitutional reform.
C) The Role of the Openings in the Interior
The “opening” sector within the regime (Fraga, Fernández Ordóñez, Pío Cabanillas) also called for reform from within, aligning with the Platform’s ideas.