Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Spanish American Independence
Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Loss of Spanish America
The Restoration of Absolutism
Under the Treaty of Valençay (1813), Ferdinand VII returned to Spain. Supporters of absolutism urged him to restore the old order, believing the Liberals were weak. In April, Ferdinand received the Manifesto of the Persians, which encouraged him to ignore liberal proposals and reinstate absolute monarchy.
Ferdinand VII disappointed liberals and reformers by nullifying the Constitution of Cadiz (1812) and all legislative work of the Cadiz Courts. He restored absolutism and old institutions, including the Inquisition, but confirmed the abolition of jurisdictional rights in the estates. Many liberals were arrested, while others went into exile in France or England.
Between 1813 and 1820, military coups became common, with the military acting as arbiters of political life. The most significant was the pronouncement of Major Riego in 1820, which initiated the Liberal Triennium. During this time, uprisings occurred, encouraged by American and liberal principles.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
On January 1, 1820, Commander Riego, in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville), proclaimed the Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand VII was forced to swear by the constitution in March 1812. However, he used all resources the constitution gave him to obstruct the liberal reforms. The ranks of the liberals were divided between moderates and progressives.
The new liberal courts tried to accelerate the work begun in Cadiz:
- Abolition of primogeniture properties.
- Prohibition of the purchase of church property.
- Definition of the basis for the confiscation of church lands.
- Abolition of the feudal system.
Absolutists formed a powerful group known as the Realists, whose intervention was significant in several events aimed at restoring the old absolutism. They rebelled, organized guerrilla forces, and created the Regency of Urgel.
The Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis
Absolutist European powers, which had defeated Napoleon, formed the Holy Alliance to prevent any liberal and revolutionary experience in Europe. These powers, assembled at the Congress of Verona (1822), commissioned France to intervene in Spain with an army known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis. Supported by Spanish royalists, they invaded Spain without much resistance.
The Second Restoration of Absolutism and the Carlist Problem
The second restoration of absolutism by Ferdinand VII was more moderate than the first, seeking some administrative modernization. However, Ferdinand faced opposition from both liberals and the Apostles. The independence of American colonies, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, was also finalized.
The first Bourbon King, Philip V, introduced the Salic Law, which prevented women from ruling directly. Ferdinand VII had no offspring and was advised to repeal this rule. Ferdinand’s brother, Infante Carlos María Isidro, saw this action as illegal and did not accept it, believing it deprived him of his right to inherit the crown. The Apostles supported Carlos, leading to the Carlist problem, which triggered a civil war upon Ferdinand VII’s death.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
The emancipation of the American colonies was mainly staged by Creoles, who, although of Spanish origin, were the dominant group. They wanted to get rid of the monopoly restrictions and taxes imposed by Spain. The struggle for emancipation resulted in a clash between Creoles and Spaniards. The lower strata did not identify with independence.
America reacted to the French invasion of Spain by proclaiming loyalty to Ferdinand VII and creating juntas. This was conceived as an insurrectionary movement, proclaiming the absence of government in Spain and beginning the emancipation process, which can be divided into two phases:
Factors Leading to Independence
- Growing discontent of the Creoles, who were denied access to major political offices.
- Limitations to free trade and economic development imposed by the colonial regime.
- Influence of Enlightenment ideas and the example of the independence of the United States.
- The political crisis caused by the Napoleonic invasion.
Stages of Independence
1808-1814
American territories declared independence from Napoleonic Spain but kept ties with the authorities in Cadiz. When Ferdinand VII was restored, all colonies except Argentina rejoined the Spanish Crown.
1814-1824
Absolutism led to military pronouncements toward independence, encouraged by England and the United States. Prominent independence leaders included San Martín and Simón Bolívar. The wars of independence culminated in the Spanish defeat at Ayacucho in 1824, ending Spanish domination in America, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The Failure of American Unity
Simón Bolívar envisioned American unity after the end of the Hispanic empire. However, the pettiness of the new rulers, economic backwardness, communication difficulties, and U.S. maneuvers led to the failure of the Bolivarian ideal and the political fragmentation of Hispanic America.