Evolution and Theories of Political Parties
Evolution of Political Parties
The most important function of political parties is to nominate candidates, influencing the role of citizens in politics. The late 20th century saw Western European parties become more professionalized, with bureaucratic organizations employing experts. The electoral goal became paramount, leading to terms like “electoral-professional party” or “party cartel.” These complex organizations prioritize government activity, parliamentary affairs, and internal structure over member engagement. Party leaders increasingly act as public policy makers.
Transformation of Political Parties
These transformations prioritize performance criteria. While sharing a common democratic model, these parties primarily focus on institutional and organizational aspects, neglecting the social aspect related to their members.
Theories of Party System Emergence
Several theories explain the emergence of party systems:
- Institutional theories focus on parliamentary development. Parties arose from the need for parliamentarians to organize in response to expanding suffrage, creating groups and caucuses.
- Historical situation theories emphasize social crises linked to industrialization and nation-building. These processes led to four cleavages: primary vs. secondary sectors, worker vs. owner, center vs. periphery, and church vs. state.
- Development theories link party emergence to modernization and socioeconomic changes. These include a new entrepreneurial class, increased social mobility, higher education and information levels, media development, and secularization. Cultural changes and post-materialist values also influence existing party systems.
Classifying Party Systems
Approaches to classifying party systems include analyzing their birth, development, and crystallization, focusing on competitive dynamics and patterns. Sartori’s typology emphasizes significant parties—those capable of coalition or blackmail—influencing electoral competition. Sartori’s criteria consider the number of parties (by weight and parliamentary elections) and system polarization (ideological distance). This typology includes:
- Single-party system
- Hegemonic party system (suppressing competition)
- Two-party system
- Ruling party system (one party maintains an absolute majority for at least three consecutive elections)
- Limited pluralism system (3-5 parties with weak ideological distance and bipolar competition)
- Centripetal pluralism system (moderate, with 6+ parties, considerable ideological distance, multipolar competition, and centrifugal tendencies)
- Polarized pluralism system (similar to centripetal, but with bilateral oppositions)
- Fragmented pluralism system (10+ parties, fragmented power)