Europe in the 20th Century: From Hegemony to War
Political changes, social advances, and the development of science and industry marked the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Europe’s Hegemony: Britain’s commercial and financial power, Germany and France’s industrial supremacy, followed by Italy, dominated the global landscape.
Outside Europe: The United States (after the Civil War, 1861-1865) and Japan (after the Meiji Restoration, 1868) emerged as significant players.
International Relations in Europe: Between 1870 and 1914, international relations in Europe went through two distinct phases.
The Bismarckian System (1871-1890): Following the unification of Germany, Chancellor Bismarck organized European international relations. He aimed to isolate France, an enemy due to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.
The Armed Peace (1891-1914): Peace was maintained during this period, but European countries, anticipating war, grouped into two alliance blocks: the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).
The Second Industrial Revolution
The use of electricity and oil, along with new methods of work organization, transformed industry. Electricity provided lighting and powered engines, thanks to the invention of the accumulator and transformer in 1897. Oil, petrol, and diesel fueled combustion engines. New methods of organization, such as Taylorism and Fordism, analyzed working practices and applied them to production. Assembly lines, a chain of workers or machines assembling parts consecutively, became commonplace. The metallurgical sector increased the production of steel, copper, and aluminum, used in new products like sewing and typing machines, and airplanes. The chemical sector produced plastics, synthetic fibers, and explosives.
New Times for Capitalism
The need for capital to finance new factories and the capitalist system led to the formation of corporate groups, reducing the number of companies while increasing profits. The concentration of capital in holdings created important banks, such as Deutsche Bank in Germany and Credit Lyonnais in France.
The New Colonial Expansion
Around 1870, a new form of colonial expansion, imperialism, emerged. Colonialism aimed to control the economic resources of colonized territories. Imperialism imposed ideological domination while exploiting them economically. Britain and France were followed by Germany, Belgium, Italy, Russia, the United States, and Japan.
The Causes of Imperialism
Political and Strategic: France, Germany, and Italy competed to expand their territories and maintain their power on the geopolitical map of the world. The United Kingdom sought to control commercial routes. Demographic: Colonies absorbed Europe’s population surplus, reducing unemployment and preventing social conflict. Economic: The Second Industrial Revolution created a demand for raw materials and new markets. Ideological: The theory of evolution was adapted to proclaim the superiority of the white race.
Forms of Domination
Concessions: Territories were controlled by foreign powers. China conceded strategic ports. Protectorates: The colonizing power controlled the army and the exploitation of certain resources. The British protectorate in Egypt is an example. Colonies: Colonies were subject to the government of the metropolitan state. Location colonies were established to control strategic communities. Settler colonies involved large-scale emigration. Exploitation colonies used the native population for labor, but the metropolitan state controlled the resources.
The Expansion in Africa
In 1870, Africa was largely unknown to Europeans, with only a few trading posts along the coast. The British aimed to occupy the territory from Cairo to Cape Town. The French expanded from Senegal to Somalia. France and Britain clashed with other countries, such as Belgium, Portugal, Italy, Spain, and Germany, who had colonial aspirations in Africa. The Berlin Conference (1885) agreed on several points: those who had already colonized the coast of Africa had the right to occupy the territory inland from the coast, including the Niger and Congo rivers.
The Occupation of Other Continents
In Asia, the system of concessions prevailed due to the well-organized Asian states. Some colonies included India (United Kingdom), Indochina (France), and Indonesia (Netherlands). Russia incorporated Siberia and expanded towards China and India. Japan attempted to incorporate Korea and Manchuria, competing with Russia and China. In America, the USA expanded to Puerto Rico and Cuba (after the Spanish-American War) and occupied the territory of the Panama Canal. In Oceania, the British, Australia, and the USA controlled some archipelagos, such as Hawaii.
The Consequences of Colonialism
Colonialism had devastating consequences for native populations. Local governments were eliminated or subjected to foreign control, and traditional crops were replaced with plantations for export. Infrastructure was built primarily for private interests. Industrial development did not take place in these territories, and territorial frontiers were often arbitrarily drawn.
The Great War
In 1914, a war began in Europe that affected all other continents, fueled by the colonial expansion of European countries. This conflict, known as the First World War or the Great War, divided countries into two sides: the Central Powers, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria, and the Allies, including the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Serbia, and Italy. The USA later joined the Allies.
The Causes of the War
The murder in Sarajevo (Bosnia) of the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, triggered the conflict. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and Russia entered the war to help Serbia. This set in motion the complex system of alliances that had been agreed upon before the war. Territorial conflicts existed between France and Germany over possession of Alsace and Lorraine, and between Italy and Austria-Hungary over Trent. Nationalist conflicts arose from the oppression of minorities in the Balkans, who sought to establish their national identities within the Austrian and Turkish empires. Colonial conflicts arose from competing colonizing nations. Economic conflicts stemmed from competition in commerce and trade.
The Characteristics of the War
Territorial extension: Sixteen nations participated, including colonial empires, and the war took place over a vast area, encompassing many different battlefronts. New weapons: Machine guns, airplanes, and new defensive systems, such as trenches, were introduced, along with new tactics like psychological warfare.
The Development of the War
People initially believed the war would be short, but it lasted for over four years:
1914: War on two fronts, Eastern and Western, with offensive advances by German and Russian troops.
1915-16: The conflict became a war of attrition. Fronts were formed by long lines of trenches protected by machine guns and barbed wire.
1917: The USA entered the war on the side of the Allies, while Russia abandoned the conflict due to the Soviet Revolution.
1918: Attacks on all fronts by the Allies, with Germany isolated and without supplies. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated, and the republic signed the armistice. The war ended on November 11th.
The Paris Conference
In 1918, American President Wilson issued his Fourteen Points, outlining the foundations for future peace.
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) brought together the victorious countries to agree on peace terms. These included economic sanctions, territorial concessions, and reductions in armies. The Treaty of Versailles, particularly harsh on Germany, held it responsible for the war. Germany was forced to abandon all its colonies, return Alsace and Lorraine to France, and reduce its army.
The New Map of Europe
Redesigned consequence of the partition of the Russian and Austrian empires.New countries and fronteirs appeared ; Poland ,Austria , Hungary etc..