Ethos in Early American Writing: Winthrop, Washington, and Madison
Credibility as Persuasion in Early American Writing
In his Rhetoric, Aristotle claimed that “character may almost be called the most effective means of persuasion.” Each of the early American writers knew and utilized this opportunity, but they approached it differently. All of them gained credibility for their speeches and writings, but in different manners. While John Winthrop appealed to the deity, George Washington created credibility with his arguments, and James Madison concealed his identity so that his ideas could speak for themselves.
John Winthrop and Divine Authority
Winthrop gained credibility by making himself appear as the deputy of God, not an individual with his own ambitions. In 1630 he addressed “A Model of Christian Charity” to the Puritans who sailed to America to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Delivering his speech as the Governor of the colony and a Puritan himself, Winthrop appeals to his audience’s beliefs and establishes his own credibility, as he is also a member of the religious community. Thus, he states “we are entered into covenant with Him for this work,” meaning that God is also a party to this agreement and, therefore, it obligates both Winthrop and his audience. Furthermore, when Winthrop warns “that so manifold a mischief may not happen” because of their potential sins, he equips himself with the credibility of divine justice. Similarly, when talking about the necessity of community support, he states “we shall be knit together… as one man,” which implies that their actions should reflect God’s will.
Such arguments help Winthrop to convince the pious members of the Puritan community of the righteousness of his cause but, at the same time, limit his audience to only pious people. Winthrop’s arguments are based on the assumption of the correctness of his and his audience’s religious faith, so people who do not share it cannot resonate with him.
George Washington and the Sacrifice of Power
Washington gained credibility by sacrificing his own interests, showing that he did not seek power and authority. In 1796 he published his Farewell Address in American newspapers, announcing his decision to step down from his position as President of the United States once his second term expired. In the Address, he warned “the people of these United States” about “the baneful effects of the spirit of party.”
He claims that excessive love for one’s party will cause disunion and will make politicians use their powers for their own sake. When addressing such a controversial and sensitive topic, Washington could easily have abused his authority and publicly condemned the supporters of parties. However, he does not do that; on the contrary, Washington describes himself as “the parting friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his judgment,” because he will soon leave the presidency. Washington claims that his warning is sincere because, from now on, he is no longer a politician and gains no benefit from disclosing this issue.
Furthermore, to gain credibility with the supporters of the parties, Washington admits that “I am too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors.” Washington appeals to humanity’s universal knowledge regarding human egoism and shows that his ideas may be applied equally to all parts of society. As a result, he gains credibility with his audience, proving that his arguments are not biased by his presidential position.
James Madison and the Power of Logic
Unlike Winthrop and Washington, Madison concealed his identity as “Publius” to appeal to the logic of his audience. In 1788, he published Federalist 51 as part of a series of essays called The Federalist Papers, to encourage New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution. Since many people feared that the U.S. would become a monarchy, they did not trust any governmental act that would establish the federal government. Therefore, being a strong supporter of the Constitution, Madison had to create credibility for his argument, and he did so by appealing to the audience’s rational mind.
In the essay, Madison states that “if men were angels, no government would be necessary,” which shows that he does not believe people are naturally honest. Instead, he claims that people need a government to limit their evil instincts, and therefore the separation of powers will ensure that no one can become as corrupt as they might otherwise be. Furthermore, Madison uses the collective pronouns “we” and “our” when stating that “experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions,” emphasizing that everyone can see the necessity of establishing the federal government. Madison does not rely on his audience’s religious faith or test his ideas on a particular group of people. Instead, he claims that human nature can be tested by everyone individually. Thus, he creates credibility for his arguments in favor of the new Constitution by demonstrating their self-evidence.
Three Paths to Credibility
The approaches of Winthrop, Washington, and Madison proved Aristotle’s point that credibility may become a source of persuasion, but they showed that it can take different forms. All three writers used logical arguments, but they did so in various ways. While Winthrop relied on divine law and Washington appealed to the audience’s rational, unbiased mind, Madison positioned himself as one of the citizens rather than a politician and claimed that his arguments speak for themselves. However, Madison not only gained credibility with his logical, rational arguments; his method also proved more enduring over time.