Empiricism: Philosophy of Experience and Knowledge

Definition of Empiricism

Empiricism is the philosophical trend that considers experience the criterion or standard of truth in knowledge. It refers to experience (from Gr. empeiria) in its second meaning:

• Not “personal participation in repeatable situations (with personal and subjective meaning);
• But the repeated experience of certain situations provides an objective and impersonal criterion for understanding things (or situations).

Empiricism is characterized by two fundamental aspects:

1. Denial of absolute truth, or at least, a denial that absolute truth is accessible to humans.
2. Recognition that all truth must be tested and can be modified, amended, or abandoned based on experience.

Empiricism is not opposed to reason but denies the claim to establish necessary truths—truths so absolute as to make verification unnecessary, absurd, or contradictory.

We often act or think empirically, relying more on habit or custom than scientific reasoning. In this sense, empiricism is opposed to rationalism.

David Hume

David Hume (1711-1776) was a British philosopher and historian born in Scotland. His philosophy, influenced by Berkeley and developing Locke’s doctrines, led to total skepticism. He is a key figure in Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment. His works include A Treatise of Human Nature: Being An Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.

Ideas and Impressions

Hume believed all human knowledge comes from the senses. Our perceptions are divided into two categories: ideas and impressions.

• Impressions: The actual presence of an image or feeling. These are divided into impressions of sensation (original) and reflection (secondary).
• Ideas: Mental representations of things. For Hume, ideas are weakened images of impressions.

Impressions are the first evidence in our minds, resulting in other perceptions: sensations, passions, and emotions that affect the force and vivacity in our minds.

This is crucial to Hume’s skepticism: we cannot be certain of something (like God, the soul, or the self) unless we can point to the impression from which the idea stems.

Metaphysics

For Hume, metaphysics is deep, abstract reflection on human nature and its capacity for knowledge—establishing the capabilities and limits of human knowledge. This metaphysics can validate science, indicating where research should focus. Hume’s metaphysics determines the boundaries of scientific inquiry.

Hume accepts metaphysics that establishes human knowledge but rejects metaphysics that seeks the ultimate nature of reality. This knowledge is neither a relation of ideas nor a matter of fact; it lacks foundation and consistency.

Idea of Cause

Causality, for Hume, does not express necessary relations between facts, nor a power in the cause to produce the effect. Our belief in causal links is based on habit or custom—the expectation that an event will follow another after repeated experience.

Hume’s Criticism of the Idea of Cause

A) Knowledge of facts and the idea of cause. Our knowledge of facts is limited to past impressions; we have no knowledge of future events.

B) Causality and “necessary connection.” The idea of cause is the basis of our inferences about facts lacking current impressions (cause-effect relationship). Hume observed that this relationship is usually conceived as a necessary connection. Because this connection is necessary, we can know with certainty that the effect will occur.

C) Criticism of the idea of necessary connection. Hume argues that a true idea corresponds to an impression. He claims there is no impression corresponding to the idea of a necessary connection between cause and effect. The certainty of the connection comes from habit and custom—observing in the past that one event always follows another.