Early 21st Century: Societal Shifts and Global Transformations
Item 13: The World of the Early 21st Century
An Urban Society: The City and its Organization
Towns in the second half of the 19th century were centers of attraction, home to a range of services. In 1950, the urban population was 29.2% of the world’s population; by 2005, it was 48.7%. The development of industry and services contributed to the consolidation and formation of urban nuclei. Neighborhoods appeared, and major transport networks were created. In the late 19th century, metro and tram networks were built, and the combustion engine (the bus) connected more distant points, leading to the growth of ring roads. Meanwhile, hygiene problems arose. Services were organized, including sewerage systems and the collection and deposit of garbage. Security improved with better lighting and a strengthened police force, as well as fire services.
Planning of Cities and Urban Development
At the heart of the city were the major governing bodies and financial services. Affluent neighborhoods appeared in the form of expansions. Marginal areas remained unchanged, with spontaneous growth, and immigrants settled in these zones. After the Second World War, these neighborhoods grew to great dimensions (especially in the Third World) and sometimes became pockets of a single race (e.g., New York’s Harlem neighborhood). This sprawl and the associated social problems led to the development of urbanism in the 1920s. Planning began, combining housing and green areas (as in Amsterdam and London), but this plan was not followed by most Third World cities, where the center often follows a rational and structured plan, while the neighborhoods grow in a disorderly manner.
A Society of Leisure and Consumption
Consumer Society
In the first half of the 20th century, there was an improvement in wages and living conditions for workers, resulting in more money for spending. During the “Roaring Twenties,” hire purchase or credit became widespread, making objects previously only accessible to the US bourgeoisie available to more people. Consumption of items like cars, sewing machines, and vacuum cleaners grew dramatically, driven by the development of advertising. Department stores increased in number, transportation between production centers and malls improved, and secure delivery was established.
New Forms of Fun
In the early 20th century, working days were reduced, and free time appeared, first as a weekly day off, then as a weekend and paid holidays. Leisure activities gained great importance, including music, sports, tourism, hiking, and films. After the Second World War, music, particularly rock, represented a form of youthful protest. Sports became a real spectacle, attracting more and more spectators, and in 1910, the first large stadiums were constructed. The modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896. In the US, cycling (Tour de France), boxing, and football were popular.
Social Media
The media gained even more importance, not only reporting news but also influencing public opinion. In the 1920s, radio stations and networks increased, sometimes used for political purposes (e.g., Roosevelt’s campaigns and Hitler’s speeches) and for advertising consumer goods. The written press became a major force in shaping thought, with an emphasis on information and creating public opinion. Sports and literature supplements appeared. During the early 20th century, photography became an art form, and advertising posters flooded the streets. Cartoons boomed during the interwar period, with Walt Disney creating Mickey Mouse in 1928. Comics like Superman and Batman emerged in the 1930s. The first TV broadcasts occurred in the 1930s, but TV gained more importance after the Second World War, eventually evolving into a digital system with on-demand, interactive, and online content.
The Film “Seventh Art”
In 1895, the Lumière brothers held the first public film screening in Paris. Cinemas began to appear in cities, and film production companies and studios acquired great importance, particularly in Hollywood (Los Angeles). Films were produced on an industrial scale with large budgets (e.g., Warner Bros., Fox). In 1927, “talkies” appeared, with “The Jazz Singer” marking a turning point. After the Second World War, the US film industry boomed, and European alternatives emerged (e.g., Italian neorealism).
Scientific and Technological Transformations
Revolution of Physics
In 1905, Albert Einstein published his first theory of relativity, revolutionizing the world of physics, as did the emergence of quantum mechanics. In 1929, the fission or splitting of the atom’s nucleus was achieved, which could be used to create weapons of great power (starting the road to the atomic bomb). On August 6, 1945, the first nuclear bomb was launched in Hiroshima. This allowed for space research. In 1957, the Soviets launched the first space satellite, paving the way for Neil Armstrong to set foot on the moon in 1969. In 2004, the European spacecraft Mars Express discovered ice on Mars’s south pole (water mixed with carbon dioxide).
Extraordinary Advances in Biology and Medicine
The study of living organisms has been applied to the cure of multiple diseases. Biochemistry has led to the creation of new medicines. Biology has discovered microorganisms (viruses and bacteria), and penicillin was discovered by Fleming in 1928. Antibiotics and vaccines have appeared. In 1953, biologists Watson and Crick discovered DNA (genetic inheritance). In 1990, the Human Genome Project began, concluding in 2005, allowing for applications such as early detection of diseases and genetic malformations (experiments with stem cells). Medical breakthroughs were experienced in the first half of the 20th century, with great development in surgery after 1960 (prosthesis implantation, complex organ transplants).
Technical Progress and Transport
Refrigeration revolutionized the world of food since 1920 (keeping food chilled and frozen). Also in the 1920s, chemical synthesis was used to produce fabrics, synthetic perfumes, and dyes. The pharmaceutical industry created analgesics. The metallurgical industry developed new metal alloys, and agriculture benefited from improved fertilizer application techniques. Sulfonamides were developed, and production processes were automated. Rail remained the most commonly used mode of transport, and in the last decades of the 20th century, important train networks were created. The automobile became popular during the first half of the 20th century in the US and especially after the Second World War, becoming accessible to the middle class. Aviation experienced advances, particularly during the Second World War (increased tonnage, higher speed, turbojets).
Scientific Question
Since the second half of the 20th century, many governments have given strategic importance to R&D programs, allocating between 2% and 3% of their GDP. However, there have been many criticisms due to the abusive and indiscriminate use of technology, leading to acid rain and the ozone hole (due to CFCs). In 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear power station disaster occurred, causing incredible damage and highlighting the dangers of nuclear energy. Molecular biology and genetics also raise ethical concerns (genetic manipulation, artificial insemination).
Society of Communication
In the 1930s, mass media (mass communication media) were born, including radio and TV, reaching thousands of people at once. The emergence of computers began in 1953 when IBM offered the first one for sale, followed by the development of the microprocessor. Their use became widespread, changing the world of work and communication. In 1980, the first video recorders appeared (storing audio and video). In 1983, compact discs (CD-A) were introduced. In 1989, high-definition digital TV was developed, along with the first MP4 players. The 21st century saw the rise of MP3 players and the increased use of the internet (created in 1990) as a mass medium, with millions of websites and Wi-Fi, creating a global village where you can talk to anyone anywhere.
Feminism and New Social Movements
Fighting for a Job Outside the Home
In the early 20th century, many women worked outside the home but had no access to higher education or leadership positions in government. The image of the active and sporty woman became fashionable (no longer a slave to the household). During the Second World War, women took men’s jobs (because men were at war), and their work became more accepted. However, many women were still treated as subordinates or did not receive the same treatment or salary.
The Fight for Political Equality
Women in the early 20th century were not entitled to vote. The early struggles for women’s rights occurred in the second half of the 19th century, especially in the US and Great Britain. In 1848, in New York, the first convention on women’s rights was held, demanding equal treatment in marriage, child custody, property, and salaries. Great Britain hosted the suffragist movement, which demanded political rights for women, including the right to vote. In 1903, a prominent suffragist, Emmeline Pankhurst, created the Women’s Social and Political Union. She was imprisoned, demonstrations were repressed, and the movement spread to industrialized countries. The right to vote was recognized in the US in 1920 and in Great Britain in 1928.
Feminist Movement
Feminism since the 1970s has advocated for the rejection of women’s economic subordination, equality between men and women, recognition of female identity, and the liberation of women in poor countries. Three works support the thesis of the new feminism: Simone de Beauvoir’s *The Second Sex*, Betty Friedan’s *The Feminine Mystique*, and Kate Millett’s *Sexual Politics*. The United Nations declared the decade from 1975 to 1985 the Decade of Women. The 1995 Beijing Conference analyzed the correlation between poverty among women and gender discrimination. The feminist struggle continues today because discrimination persists.
Social Movements
From the 1960s, protest movements emerged in developed countries against the values of industrial society, focusing on the struggle of workers to improve their living conditions and the struggle of black citizens against social discrimination (achieving civil and political equality). The 1960s hippie movement in America advocated for nonviolence, a return to nature, and a rejection of consumerism and sexual freedom. Student movements demanded social change. Since the 1980s, new movements have emerged, advocating for greater respect for human rights, solidarity for the poor, environmental protection, and a reduction in military spending.
New Millennium: Inequality and Globalization
Globalization
In recent years, the 20th century has emphasized the so-called globalization process (intensification of global economic and political relations linking distant locations, where events anywhere in the world can have implications for distant countries). Factors such as the development of world capitalism and the influence of the media (internet, TV) allow thousands of people living far apart to see events live (elections, a catastrophe). Some consumer goods and public figures have a universal character (like blue jeans, certain drinks, fast food), demonstrating global interdependence.
Consequences of Globalization
It is difficult to predict the consequences of globalization, which substantially affects the economy, politics, and culture. Globalization represents absolute freedom of exchange, limited only by physical or political-geographical factors. The sovereignty of the state seems to be weakening, and international organizations are becoming increasingly important. Liberal democracy is spreading. In terms of culture, there are tendencies toward cultural mixing and cosmopolitanism. Information spreads rapidly around the globe, and leisure tourism is growing incredibly, as are cultural connections (internet). The precise scope is greater than the economy; it works efficiently, but only a small part of the world’s population lives with dignity.
Criticism Against Globalization
Globalization generates benefits in the rich North and extreme poverty in the South. Anti-globalization movements have emerged. In December 1999, in Seattle (USA), the World Trade Organization met, and there were violent clashes between police and protesters. These protests have continued at World Bank meetings.
Differences Between Rich and Poor
The world experienced tremendous growth in the 20th century, but poor countries still suffer from famine and disease. However, the FAO and WHO note that the average caloric intake from 1970 to 1999 increased by 21%, the population suffering from malnutrition has been reduced from 920 to 810 million, access to tap water increased by 50%, and infant mortality decreased from 10% to 6%. The gap between rich and poor countries around the world has widened. If consumption patterns of developed countries were adopted globally, pollution and the depletion of resources and materials would be unsustainable.
New World Order and Recent Conflicts
Following the fall of the USSR, the USA became the leading world power in economic, political, and military terms. At the end of the Gulf War in 1991, George H.W. Bush proclaimed a new world order to Congress, based on respect for human rights, democracy, and a free market economy. This consolidated the predominance of the US and its NATO allies. There have been grave events and conflicts with Muslim countries and organizations, such as the bombing of the Twin Towers on September 11, 2001, with two planes and one in the Pentagon, killing thousands and causing global commotion. George W. Bush declared war on terrorism and mobilized the army, suspecting the Islamist group Al-Qaeda, based in Afghanistan, of the bombing. NATO applied its rules and considered the attack an assault on the entire alliance. Bush demanded the handover of Bin Laden, the leader of Al-Qaeda, but the Taliban did not comply, and war was declared. On October 7, 2001, the US began bombing Afghanistan, and in December, the Taliban regime was defeated, but Bin Laden was not found. In 2002, Bush increased military spending and prioritized national security and defense. In 2003, under the pretext that Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, possessed weapons of mass destruction, the US, after a struggle with the UN Security Council, unilaterally decided to invade Iraq with military aid from Great Britain and political support from other countries (Spain). This led to a military occupation that continues to this day. Saddam Hussein disappeared (he was later sentenced to death and hanged in 2006), the alleged weapons were not found, and clashes with guerrillas have not improved. Chaos reigns, and fighting continues between Shiites, Sunnis, and Kurds, with thousands of civilian casualties. The US’s actions have been widely criticized around the world and have also been accompanied by heightened internal tensions. There is also the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. In 2004, Abu Mazen was elected Palestinian leader, and new negotiations with Israel began, but radical Islamists (Hamas movement) opposed, refusing to recognize the State of Israel. However, steps have been taken toward peace, including Israel’s evacuation of Gaza. In the 2006 Gaza elections, Hamas won against Abu Mazen. The US and the EU consider Hamas a terrorist organization and have imposed an economic blockade. Tension has increased between the two parties, leading to an undeclared civil war.
Item 12: Decolonization Process
The Seeds of Independence
Determinants
The Second World War revealed the weakness of the great colonial powers: Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The propaganda of freedom and democracy by the Allies against Nazism strengthened independence movements. Nationalist movements in the colonies had obtained promises of liberation in exchange for their participation or neutrality in the conflict. However, at the end of the conflict, the major cities pretended to continue as before the war but encountered riots and clashes that they could not control. Another factor was that the US and the USSR were opposed to classical colonialism (occupation and exploitation) due to their principles and desire to expand their areas of influence. The UN became an international forum for protest against colonialism, and public opinion in developed countries favored independence.
The Emergence of the Third World
Economic control remained in the hands of the former colonial powers or US interests. Arbitrary boundaries caused political instability (resulting in clashes). The first demonstration of solidarity among Third World states occurred in 1945 at the Asian Conference in New Delhi. The Afro-Asian bloc (independent states of the two continents) was formed at the UN and voted against colonial powers. The Bandung Conference (1955) affirmed the right to independence, equality of races and countries, condemnation of colonialism, and support for peaceful coexistence, disarmament, and the prohibition of atomic weapons.
Poverty and Uneven Development
The expression “Third World” appeared in 1952 to designate poor countries (those that had been colonized). Rich countries were often the former colonial powers. The criteria that classified Third World countries were low per capita income, high population growth, high mortality rates, illiteracy, and malnutrition. Most of the population worked in the primary sector, and there was political corruption and coups d’état. Black Africa (excluding the Republic of South Africa) maintains many features of the Third World (13% of the world’s population but only 2% of world production). Hunger, malnutrition, and civil wars are common.
Asia, a Continent Awakens
The Colonial Past of China and the New Nationalism
From the late 19th century, Europeans had established ports and strategic enclaves in China and obtained favorable trade agreements. The gains from these enclaves were not invested in improving the country but were exported to Europe. In the early 20th century, Dr. Sun Yat-sen formed the People’s Party, with the goals of freedom from foreign economic domination and improved living conditions for the Chinese people. He was supported by democratic sectors. In 1912, the army overthrew the Manchu Emperor Puyi and proclaimed the Republic of China, but Sun was soon ousted by the army, leading to civil conflict (Mongolia and Tibet took the opportunity to gain independence from China). In 1921, Mao Zedong and other leaders founded the Chinese Communist Party, and after a long civil war, the revolution succeeded.
India, the Jewel in Britain’s Crown
From the 17th century, the British East India Company was established in India. In 1858, India became a British colony ruled by a colonial administration headed by a viceroy. There were differences between Hindus and Muslims (who leaned toward the Muslim minority). During the first third of the 20th century, most of the population were peasants (feudalism), industrialization was low, and there were large cities with small traders and officials (in the colonial administration). Most of the indigenous upper classes were educated in British schools and universities. This sector of the bourgeoisie initiated nationalist claims.
Indian Nationalism (Gandhi)
Nationalism first manifested in 1885 through the Congress Party (members of the Indian bourgeoisie). They demanded independence in 1914, and the Muslim League suffered the consequences of the Great War. Taxes and prices rose, and there were famines and epidemics. Gandhi appeared, advocating for independence and Hindu culture, criticizing economic progress as unjust. British repression was brutal (30,000 Indians were imprisoned). Gandhi was imprisoned several times, went on hunger strikes, and practiced nonviolent resistance.
The Partition: The Joining of India and Pakistan
Great Britain agreed to prepare for independence, creating an assembly and a transitional Indian government. Since 1930, clashes between Hindus and Muslims had been violent because the Muslim League wanted to create a separate Islamic state. In 1947, Great Britain granted independence, and India was established with an Indian majority (81% of the territory) and Pakistan with a Muslim majority (19% of the territory). The border territory of Kashmir was and is a focus of warlike tension between the two. India has achieved great economic development, with a notable pharmaceutical industry and services, but there are still significant social differences and religious clashes.