Descartes’ Philosophy: Doubt, Knowledge, and Morality
Descartes’ Philosophy
10. Relationship Between Evidence, Criterion of Truth, and Doubt
Evidence, according to Descartes, must be clear (easily understood) and distinct (unmistakable). Conjecture, or intuition-based evidence, is insufficient. Intuition, the mental faculty allowing us to grasp truths directly, is essential for attaining evidence. Descartes’ doubt differs from skeptical doubt in its purpose (achieving certainty) and scope (limited to theoretical matters, excluding religion and morality).
11. Importance of Order in Knowledge and Science
Descartes believed that knowledge is structured and ordered. Science requires understanding this inherent order, not just superficial details. Absolute knowledge is self-evident and simple, while relative knowledge is explained through the absolute and is more complex. The analytic method progresses from the relative to the absolute, while the synthetic method uses the absolute to explain the relative.
12. Descartes’ Provisional Morality
Descartes advocated a provisional morality to guide actions while establishing a foundation for scientific knowledge. This interim morality consists of four maxims:
- Caution: Obey the laws and customs of one’s country.
- Decision: Be resolute in actions.
- Stoicism: Conquer oneself rather than fortune, and adapt desires to circumstances.
- Cultivation of Reason: Dedicate life to developing reason.
13. The Basis of Metaphysical Knowledge
Descartes argues against the senses as the foundation of knowledge. He presents several arguments for doubt:
- Sensory Errors: Senses can be deceptive.
- The Dream Argument: Reality could be indistinguishable from a dream.
- The Evil Genius Argument: An all-powerful, malevolent being could deceive us about even the most basic truths.
- The Cogito: The only certainty is the act of thinking itself (“I think, therefore I am”).
14. Descartes’ Proof of God’s Existence
Descartes argues that the idea of a perfect being (God) must have a cause. Since we are imperfect, we cannot be the source of this idea. Therefore, a perfect being (God) must exist to have implanted this idea within us.
15. Types of Ideas and Dualism
Descartes distinguishes three types of ideas:
- Adventitious: Seemingly derived from external experience.
- Fictitious (or Factitious): Created by the imagination.
- Innate: Inherent within the understanding.
His dualist ontology posits two substances: infinite (God) and finite (mind and body). Attributes are essential traits of substance (extension and thought). Modes are non-essential properties. His dualistic anthropology describes humans as composed of mind (thinking substance) and body (extended substance), raising the problem of their interaction.
Epicurean Ethics
Epicurean ethics emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure, defined as the absence of pain (ataraxia). Pleasure should be moderate and guided by reason to avoid pain.