Comparative Politics: Core Concepts and Political Systems

Posted on May 20, 2026 in Social sciences

1. What is Comparative Politics and its main goals?

Comparative politics is the study of different countries to understand their political systems. Its main goals are:

• To explain the differences and similarities between countries.
• To identify the causes of political events.
• To suggest ways to improve a country’s situation.

2. The role of the individual in the emergence of politics

Humans live in society with infinite needs and life projects, yet resources are limited. This scarcity creates tensions and problems. Politics is the essential tool used to negotiate, establish rules, and resolve these conflicts.

3. The State as a form of political power

The State is a form of political power. Debates persist regarding the extent of its authority. At its worst, the State acts as an “intolerable evil” (dictatorship); at its best, it is a “necessary evil.” Liberal democracies emphasize the importance of limiting State power.

4. The three main elements of the State

The three elements are People, Territory, and Sovereignty.

People: This refers to the group of citizens living within the State. Membership is defined by the State’s legal framework, rather than race, language, or religion.

5. Unitary, Federal, and Confederation systems

• Unitary System: The central government holds all power.
• Federal System: Power is shared between the central government and regional states.
• Confederation: A union where the central authority is weak, and individual states retain most power.

6. Decentralization, Deconcentration, and Delegation

• Decentralization: Transferring real decision-making power to local governments.
• Deconcentration: Moving government offices to other cities while the central government retains all authority.
• Delegation: The central government assigns specific tasks to semi-independent agencies.

7. Key analytical terms

• Unit of analysis: The specific entity or country being studied.
• Counterfactual: Analyzing what would have happened if a past event had been different.
• MSS (Most Similar System): Comparing similar countries to explain one significant difference.
• MDS (Most Different System): Comparing different countries to explain one shared similarity.
• Dependent variable: The result or effect being explained.
• Independent variable: The cause that influences the result.

8. International agreements and organizations

• Free Trade Agreement (FTA): A treaty to reduce taxes and facilitate trade (e.g., USMCA).
• Organisation for cooperation: Countries working together on common goals without ceding sovereignty (e.g., UN).
• Organisation for integration: Countries delegating power to a supranational body to create joint laws (e.g., EU).

9. The Law of Supply and Demand

If prices rise, supply increases while demand decreases. If prices fall, supply decreases while demand increases. Prices fluctuate until supply and demand reach equilibrium.

10. Main elements of a Democracy

1. Rule of Law: Everyone is equal under clear, fair laws.
2. Consensus: Agreement on the basic rules of the political game.
3. Majority Principle: The majority wins, but must respect minority rights.
4. Transparency and Free Speech: Independent media and free public opinion.

11. Full democracy vs. Illiberal democracy

A full democracy protects rights and maintains an open government. An illiberal democracy holds elections, but the government actively undermines rights and controls institutions.

12. Authoritarian vs. Totalitarian states

In an authoritarian regime, rulers force submission. Totalitarianism is more extreme, characterized by absolute power, a single ideology, and total control over public and private life.

13. Defining corruption

Corruption is the abuse of public position or power for private gain. It damages institutions and fosters inequality.

14. Types of corruption

The main categories are Petty, Grand, and Systemic corruption. Grand Corruption involves high-level leaders altering national policies for personal enrichment.

15. Electoral systems

• Plurality/Majority: Tends to create a stable two-party system but lacks representation for small groups (e.g., USA, UK).
• Proportional: Creates a multi-party system with better representation, though it often requires coalition-building (e.g., Spain, Portugal).

16. Proportional electoral systems

The two main types are the Single transferable vote and Party-list proportional representation. The latter uses the largest-average and greatest-remainder formulas.

17. The D’Hondt electoral formula

A “largest-average” formula where a party’s total votes are divided by the number of seats already won plus one (s + 1) to determine seat allocation.

18. Subjective theory of value

Value is personal and cannot be measured mathematically. Individuals choose what provides them the most satisfaction at any given moment.

19. Paradox of value and diminishing marginal utility

• Diminishing marginal utility: Each additional unit of a product provides less satisfaction than the previous one.
• Paradox of value: Explains why vital water is cheap (abundant) while useless diamonds are expensive (rare).

20. Duties of the executive

The executive branch carries out laws and policies, provides national leadership, and fulfills the roles of head of state and head of government.

21. Head of State vs. Head of Government

• Head of State: The ceremonial symbol of the nation (e.g., King Felipe VI).
• Head of Government: The political leader managing daily policy (e.g., Prime Minister).

22. Parliamentary, Presidential, and Semi-Presidential systems

• Parliamentary: The executive is chosen by and accountable to the parliament.
• Presidential: The President is elected directly and is separate from the parliament.
• Semi-Presidential: Features both an elected President and a Prime Minister accountable to the parliament.

23. Functions of the legislature

1. Making laws.
2. Representing citizens.
3. Controlling the executive: Monitoring the government and holding the power to remove the Prime Minister.

24. Unicameral and Bicameral systems

• Unicameral: A single-chamber parliament.
• Bicameral: A two-chamber parliament (e.g., Senate and Congress). Strong bicameralism grants both rooms equal power (USA); weak bicameralism favors one room (Spain, UK).

25. Judicial system levels in Spain

1. Local Courts
2. Provincial Courts
3. Regional High Courts
4. National Court (Audiencia Nacional)
5. Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo)

26. Constitutional review

• American Review: Any judge can declare a law unconstitutional during a trial.
• European Review: Only a specialized Constitutional Court can invalidate laws.

27. Public policy

An official plan or action taken by the government to address a societal problem.

28. Models of public policy formulation

1. The Rational system.
2. Cost-benefit analysis.
3. The Incremental model.
4. The Garbage-can model.

29. Price controls on rental housing

Government-imposed rent caps often lead to a decrease in housing supply, as owners withdraw properties from the market, resulting in long waiting lists.

30. Public housing policy analysis

• Dependent variable: Availability and price of rental housing.
• Independent variable: Government regulation (price controls vs. free market).
• Relationship: Removing price controls can increase housing supply and stabilize prices.