Colonialism and the Road to World War I: 1870-1939
Colonialism and the Road to World War I: 1870-1939
Europe’s Dominance
The Second Industrial Revolution empowered major European nations. Taking advantage of their technical, financial, and military superiority, they occupied territories primarily in Asia and Africa.
Causes of Colonialism
Economic Factors
European countries sought to sell their surplus production and acquire raw materials for their industries at the best possible price.
Demographic Pressures
European population growth resulted in an excess of people, causing social tension and difficulty in finding employment. Colonial policy offered the possibility of migration to other lands.
Political Motivations
Europe’s borders had stabilized by the end of the 19th century. The great powers entered a competition for political and military control of geographic areas with economic or strategic interest (ports, straits, etc.).
Ideological Justifications
Conservative nationalism advocated the superiority of whites over other races. Only some intellectuals, trade unionists, and political leaders opposed colonialism.
Exploration and Conquest
The search for new territories led to a series of scientific travels and geographical explorations. Once known, the territories were quickly conquered thanks to the technical and military superiority of the Europeans.
Colonial Organization
Colonies of Exploitation
These were colonies where the metropolis focused on economic exploitation. Europeans exercised a policy of occupation: a governor, military command, and administration officials maintained order.
Colonies of Settlement
These colonies received a permanent white immigrant population. They had a certain degree of autonomy from the metropolis.
Protectorates
These were territories that, after occupation, maintained their state organization, with an indigenous government and administrative apparatus.
The Scramble for Africa
From 1870, the colonization of Africa began, quickly and brutally, encompassing almost all of the continent (except Liberia and Abyssinia). The Berlin Conference (1885) established the rules and areas of occupation for each power, leading to a real scramble for Africa among the imperialist powers.
The Occupation of Asia
Asia was occupied by Western European powers as well as Russia, the U.S., and Japan.
The British Empire
At the end of the 19th century, Britain had the largest colonial empire in the world.
The French Empire
The second-largest colonial empire was the French, which had enormous competition with the British Empire.
Other Empires
Russia, the USA, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Spain also possessed colonial territories.
Introduction of Advances and Transformations in the Colonies
The colonial powers built ports, roads, railways, bridges, telephone lines, hospitals, and schools.
Causes of World War I
Rivalry Between Colonial Powers
Conflicts arose between Germany, which had few colonies, and Britain and France, which sought to impose themselves in the area. These conflicts were narrowly avoided.
Nationalist Exaltation
France and Germany faced off due to the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War (1871).
Balkan Conflict
Many peoples in this area sought independence from the Turkish Empire (Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro).
Arms Races and Alliances
States spent vast sums of money on weapons manufacturing. The major allied powers were:
- The Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary.
- The Triple Entente: France, Britain, and Russia.
The Outbreak of War
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a nationalist student.
The Great War
The First World War, or Great War, involved more countries and people than any previous conflict. It took place in several stages:
- The War of Movement
- The War of the Trenches
- The Crises of 1917 and the End of the War
- The War in the Rear
The War of Movement
German armies attacked France via Belgium and Luxembourg, culminating in the unsuccessful Battle of the Marne (September 6-13, 1914).
The War of the Trenches
The fronts were immobilized, and trenches were dug. Alliances formed between countries:
- Triple Entente: France, Britain, Russia.
- The Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Italy switched to the Triple Entente in 1915).
The Crises of 1917 and the End of the War
Russia experienced a revolution in 1917 and withdrew from the war. The U.S. entered the war when a German submarine destroyed one of its ships. On November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed, leading to peace.
The War in the Rear
While men were at war, women worked in ammunition and weapons factories. Due to the many casualties, modern propaganda was used to recruit men.
Introduction of Women in the Workplace
The war gave women a new role in society, allowing them to work. They were also able to vote, thanks to a strong feminist movement.
The Organization of Peace
In January 1919, a conference was held in Paris to establish peace. Thirty-two countries participated, but the four victorious powers made the decisions.
The Treaty of Versailles: Political Conditions
Transfer of German territories: Alsace-Lorraine (to France), the Danzig Corridor (to Poland), Eupen and Malmedy (to Belgium), and Schleswig (to Denmark).
The Treaty of Versailles: Military Conditions
- Abolition of military service.
- Reduction of the German army to 100,000 men.
- Demilitarization of the left bank of the Rhine and the right bank up to 50 km.
The Treaty of Versailles: Destruction of the German Colonial Empire and Trade
- Transfer of all rights and titles over their colonies to the Allies.
- Assignment of the largest part of the German merchant marine.
The Treaty of Versailles: Compensation
- Transfer of properties in Alsace-Lorraine, the Saarland, and Silesia.
- Payment of war reparations amounting to 6,500 million pounds.
The League of Nations
At the suggestion of President Wilson, a new organization, the League of Nations, was created to guarantee peace. However, it ultimately did not have much importance.
Interwar Period
Introduction
The period between 1919 and 1938, between World War I and the beginning of World War II. Europe remained poor after the war, while the U.S. became the leading world power. The highlights of this period were the Bolshevik Revolution, the Depression of 1929, and the birth of fascism in Italy.
Russia Before the Revolution
Russia was a monarchy ruled by authoritarian tsars. Technology was delayed, and its main activity was agriculture.
Stalin’s USSR
The political economy and society imposed a collectivized system:
- Private property was forbidden.
- A state-directed economy was instituted.
- Priority was given to heavy industry.
The Roaring Twenties
The U.S. held over 50% of global gold. A consumer society was established. There was overproduction.
The Crash of ’29
On October 24, 1929, shareholders wanted to sell shares, but nobody wanted to buy, so the price of shares plummeted. People were ruined and could not repay loans to the banks. People withdrew their money from banks, and many banks went bankrupt.
New Deal
The New Deal was a program to encourage economic reforms:
- Helping companies with problems, creating new public companies in sectors where there was no private investment, and destroying agricultural stock.
- The state established control over banks, obligating them to provide low-interest loans to help businessmen expand or create new businesses.
- The state encouraged public works.
Fascist Italy
In Italy, during a crisis, the figure of Mussolini emerged. In the 1922 elections, he won 22 out of 500 deputies. He led a march of the Blackshirts on Rome. Pressured by conservatives, the monarch appointed him head of government. Mussolini undertook a process of suppressing freedom and persecuting opponents. Italy became a dictatorship.
Establishment of Nazi Germany
In 1918, Germany became a republic. Adolf Hitler, a soldier, founded the National Socialist Workers’ Party of Germany, a paramilitary organization with the Assault Sections (SA). To win the working-class vote, Hitler promised work, improved wages, and a more caring society. In the 1932 elections, he won 13 million votes. He burned the parliament, eliminated his opponents, and demanded full powers.
The Third Reich
Within months, the Nazis turned Germany into a dictatorship. The state police, the SS, imposed their regime through terror, chasing opponents and Jews and placing them in concentration camps.
Time of Confrontation in Catalonia and Spain
1902-1939
At the end, there is a special appendix on the Republic.
In the first decades of the 20th century, Catalonia followed a different political dynamic than the rest of Spain: the dynastic parties lost power to Catalan nationalism and republicanism.
The Working Class
During the early 20th century, a new group with Republican ideology gained prominence in Catalonia. This group presented a working-class, revolutionary, and anticlerical discourse. Anarchism consolidated itself as the hegemonic force within the Catalan working class.
Catalan Solidarity
In 1907, many political parties formed an electoral coalition called Catalan Solidarity, with a program that demanded self-government for Catalonia.
Tragic Week
In 1909, a riot in Barcelona, known as Tragic Week, took place. To suppress it, the teacher Ferrer Guardia was executed.
The Commonwealth of Catalonia
In 1914, a government institution called the Commonwealth of Catalonia was formed, chaired by Prat de la Riba. They created infrastructure and public services.
The Last Years of the Monarchy (1917-1931)
The Crisis of 1917 (1)
Political and social unrest broke out in 1917. Opposition political parties gathered in the Parliamentary Assembly and demanded a call for constituent Cortes. Meanwhile, military groups organized to confront the government.
The Crisis of 1917 (2)
Finally, the CNT and UGT organized a revolutionary general strike. The government managed to suppress the strikes and deal with the military and political opposition.
The Era of Concentration Governments
After the 1917 crisis, concentration governments were formed with the support of the Regionalist League, which launched a campaign in favor of the Statute of Catalonia (1919).
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1931)
In 1923, Captain General of Catalonia M. Primo de Rivera, with the consent of Alfonso XIII and the support of employers’ organizations and conservative political groups, staged a coup and formed a military dictatorship inspired by Italian fascism.
From Monarchy to Republic
The Proclamation of the Republic
Municipal elections were announced on April 12, 1931. The results were similar, but the Republican-Socialist coalition triumphed in the big cities, evidencing a rejection of the monarchy and a desire for political change.
The Provisional Government (1)
A provisional government was immediately formed and began to make the first reforms:
- Amnesty for political prisoners and freedom of parties and unions.
- Laws to improve the social situation of laborers.
- Establishment of a Provisional Government of Catalonia.
The Provisional Government (2)
The constitution of 1931 recognized universal suffrage and the non-confessional nature of the state. It recognized the right to private property and accepted the possibility of creating autonomous governments.
Republican Catalonia
The Provisional Government
After the election victory, the ERC formed the government of the Republic. They were allowed to create a provisional government and a Statute of Autonomy. A committee met in Nuria to draft the statute, which was brought to the courts of Madrid and approved on September 9, 1932, after many revisions.
Elections to the Parliament of Catalonia, 1932
Statute of Autonomy of 1932 (1)
- The Statute recognized Catalonia as an independent territory within Spain.
- The basic institutions were the parliament, the executive board, and the president.
- Spanish and Catalan were recognized as official languages.
Statute of Autonomy of 1932 (2)
The work of the Generality
The Generality established primary and secondary schools, vocational schools, and an independent university. The Catalan dictionary by Pompeu Fabra was published.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Republican Reforms: Military Reform (1)
Azaña undertook the reform of the army, which was considered technically outdated and with an excessive number of officers in relation to the troops. He enacted a law that allowed the retirement of nearly half of the officers.
Republican Reforms: Military Reform (2)
Republican Reforms: Military Reform (3)
Republican Reforms: Religious and Educational Reform
The new constitution separated church and state, abolishing the budget for worship and clergy. It also promoted secular education, and the state assumed responsibility for public schools.
Republican Reforms: Territorial Reform
The constitution paved the way for the decentralization of the state, which Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia took advantage of.
Republican Reforms: Agrarian Reform
The Republic addressed a problem throughout Spain: many laborers did not own land. A new law in 1932 decreed that large, uncultivated estates were to be expropriated and distributed. The IRA (Institute of Agrarian Reform) was to compensate the owners and facilitate the settlement of peasant families.
Opposition to the Reforms: From Conservatism (1)
Large landowners, the Catholic Church, part of the army, and broad sectors of the middle and upper classes felt their properties and power, which they had held for centuries, were threatened.
Opposition to the Reforms: From Conservatism (2)
In 1932, a coup led by General Sanjurjo was thwarted by the government. A fascist group, the Falange (FE), and monarchists, such as Jose Calvo Sotelo, were also created.
Opposition to the Reforms: From the Working Class
The slow pace of reforms, especially land reform, angered some laborers and workers who wanted faster and more significant changes. Some staged uprisings that were harshly repressed by police forces.
The Biennium and the Conservative People’s Front (1933-1936)
Comparing 1933 and 1936 Elections
The Conservative Governments
In November 1933, right-wing parties (40%) and center parties (21%) won the elections. Alexander Lerroux of the Radical Party was elected prime minister with parliamentary support from the CEDA. The new government initiated a process of dismantling the reforms of the previous biennium. This situation led to the radicalization of left-wing parties.
The Riots of 1934
In 1934, a government restructuring gave entrance to CEDA ministers, causing riots across Spain.
The Riots of 1934 (In Catalonia)
In Catalonia, the first confrontation occurred when the court of Madrid canceled the Contract Law of Cultivation voted by the Parliament of Catalonia. The Catalan government did not accept this decision and re-approved the law. The clash was decisive in October 1934, when President Companys proclaimed the Catalan State within the Spanish Republic. The rebellion was quickly crushed, the Parliament of Catalonia was dissolved, and the Catalan government was imprisoned.
The Popular Front (1936) (1)
Disagreements between the government coalition parties (the Radical Party and CEDA), and especially corruption scandals in the government, led to new elections in February 1936.
The Popular Front (1936) (2)
The Preparation of the Coup
The most radical sector of the left advocated for social revolution, while right-wing extremists advocated for a coup. Tensions culminated in the murder of Calvo Sotelo, which was used as a pretext by the military to stop the Republican reforms by force.
The Outbreak of the Civil War
The Military Uprising (1)
On July 17, 1936, in Melilla, Tetuan, and Ceuta, and on the 18th on the peninsula, an important sector of the army staged a coup. On July 19, the head of government, José Giral, decided to give arms to the militias of unions and parties of the Popular Front. After two days of street fighting, the military rebels surrendered.
The Military Uprising (2)
Distribution of arms to militias.
The Internationalization of the Conflict (1)
The war in Spain was seen as a confrontation between democratic forces and fascist regimes. The military rebels received help from Germany and Italy (and to a lesser extent, Portugal). A non-intervention agreement was signed by some European countries, but Germany, Italy, and Portugal did not comply with the treaty.
The Two Opposing Areas
The Republican Area: War and Revolution
The Development of the Conflict
The End of the War and Exile
The Development of the Conflict
The rebels’ strategy was to advance from the south to Madrid.
The End of the War and Exile
In February 1939, only Madrid and the central area remained in Republican hands. Between February and March, Franco occupied the entire territory. On April 1, the conflict ended with the defeat of the Republicans. Exile began due to fear of Franco’s repression, and it is estimated that more than half a million people crossed the French border.