Colonial Expansion: Africa and Asia in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Posted on Dec 10, 2024 in History

Organization of the Colonies

Colonies were governed and administered by the metropolis. The indigenous population was subjected by law.

Dominions or colonies of settlement were characteristic of the British Empire. These were colonies of white people who had emigrated to the colonies, establishing their way of life. Regarding domestic policy, the metropolis granted self-government (self-government, parliament, etc.), but in foreign policy, they relied on the metropolis, as seen in Australia and New Zealand.

Protectorates were territories monitored or supervised by Europeans through managers, advisors, and military personnel. They respected, at least formally, the Indian government and the state organization, such as in Egypt (Great Britain).

Colonies of exploitation were those colonies in which the mother country was devoted especially to economic exploitation. The settlers appropriated land for the exploitation of their natural wealth, using cheap Indian labor. Europeans exercised a genuine policy of occupation: a governor, military, and administration officials maintained order. These colonies were not allowed to trade with other countries, and the metropolis had exclusive exploitation rights.

Strategic base colonies were positioned in key geographical locations and were intended for commercial control and military purposes, such as Gibraltar.

Awards were something like rented colonies, obtained by treaty to gain economic advantages.

Mandates (20th Century) were colonies created by the League of Nations after the First World War. Victorious powers were designated to administer colonies of the defeated powers.

Division of the World

European conquests spread around the world in the late 19th century. The great powers came to control most of Africa and Asia, the Pacific Islands and Oceania, and vast areas of America.

The “Scramble for Africa”: Main Events

In 1830, Africa was a continent virtually unknown, but after 1870, the colonization of Africa began. It was the fastest and most brutal, and it meant the total domination of the continent, with the exception of Liberia and Abyssinia (current Ethiopia), which remained independent.

The British and French had the upper hand because they had bases in Africa since the 18th century, but Belgian, German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese powers were also included. The British and French empires dreamed of creating continuous empires (a superpower dominating a large area without interruption, end to end, without borders): from north to south for the British, and from west to east for the French. Belgium’s King Leopold II acquired a large colony along the Congo River, an area that was very controversial as the Portuguese, British, and French wanted to annex it. Germany and Italy arrived late, and there were clashes that threatened a military confrontation.

The clash of interests between rival powers prompted Bismarck to convene the Conference of Berlin (1885) in Germany. This meeting, with the participation of European powers, aimed to avoid confrontations. It was decided to follow rules by European powers in Africa during the occupation and to occupy areas each. This conference was the starting point for the scramble.

Agreements Established

• European powers occupying a piece of coastline had the right to occupy the total land.
• Large African rivers were considered international; it was not necessary to ask permission to navigate a large river regardless of the European power that dominated that area.
• Actual occupation of a territory gave the right to exploit the colony.

True “Scramble for Africa” Among the Imperialist Powers

• France: Along with Great Britain, it was the most benefited power, whose possessions were predominant in West Africa: French West Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia in the Mediterranean, and the area between Senegal and Niger rivers, the current Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Guinea), French Equatorial Africa (now Chad and Gabon), French Somalia, and Madagascar.
• Great Britain: The most benefited power, whose possessions were in East Africa: dominoes in northern Egypt (Suez Canal), Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and British Somalia. To the south, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Bechuanaland, and the South African joint area. It also had some possessions on the east African coast: Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, and Nigeria.
• Belgium: Congo was obtained personally by Belgian King Leopold II, who in his will gave it to Belgium.
• Germany: Had Togo, Cameroon, Tanganyika, and Southwest Africa.
• Italy: Got Libya in the Mediterranean and, on the East African coast, Eritrea and Italian Somalia.
• Portugal: Possessed Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique.
• Spain: Had Ceuta and Melilla on the Mediterranean, and on the Atlantic coast, it had Spanish Sahara and Spanish Guinea.

Impact on Conflict

• Italian and French rivalry in Tunisia.
• Great Britain and France: As a result of the two empires’ desire to connect their non-stop African colonies, France from the Atlantic to the Pacific and the UK from Egypt to South Africa, a confrontation between the two powers occurred in Fashoda (Sudan) in 1898.
• The Suez Canal: Great Britain and France had interests in the Mediterranean. For this reason, the two powers vied for control of the Suez Canal, a strategic passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, allowing access to India without the need to skirt Africa. The British made important investments in this channel and finally got Egypt.
• Portugal and Great Britain clashed in the so-called “pink map” incident. Portugal aimed to unite Angola and Mozambique. Portugal eventually lost prestige, and Great Britain won Rhodesia.
• The Boer States: The intention of the British to occupy South Africa found a problem in the Cape, where there was a large white population of Dutch (Boers) who had emigrated as a result of industrialization, establishing independent states (Orange and Transvaal). Thus, there was a very hard battle, the Boer War (1899-1902), after which the Boer states came under the British crown. The British became the colonial master, and the Boers lost their independence, but Great Britain allowed some autonomy in the use of their own language. With the recent annexation of territories, Great Britain created the Union of South Africa.
• The Zulus in South Africa: Before the arrival of the Dutch and British in southern Africa, there were several ethnic groups. The strongest was that of the Zulus, who had a military empire east of the British colony of the Cape. The Zulus fought both the Boers and the British. Their resistance to the Europeans meant that it took a long time for them to be submitted.
• The Conference of Algeciras (1906): Germany wanted to occupy Morocco, a territory that until then had remained independent. Thus, Germany convened the Algeciras Conference, where the problem of the occupation of Morocco was discussed among several European countries. Protection was finally agreed upon, and Franco-Spanish Morocco was divided into two protectorates: the north was dominated by Spain, and the rest by France. Great Britain supported this decision in return for France not opposing British rule in Egypt. So, Germany did not achieve what it wanted, which was to stop France.

The Occupation of Asia

Asia was occupied by both Western European powers (Britain, France, Holland, and Spain) and by other countries eager to expand outside Europe (Russia, Japan, and the USA). In the 17th and 18th centuries, various powers were already present in Asia:

• Great Britain: The largest colony of exploitation of Great Britain was India, the jewel of its crown. The India-metropolis relationship between Great Britain and India was magnificent; Great Britain changed the administrative system of the colony for the benefit of the metropolis, and India recognized Queen Victoria as its empress. India became a major market for British goods and a major supplier of cheap raw materials. A related dispute was initiated by the sepoys, native soldiers in India serving Great Britain, who revolted when a rumor spread that the cartridges were covered with cow or pig fat. To protect this valuable colony from France, Great Britain annexed Burma, and against Russia, it incorporated Afghanistan as a protectorate. It also dominated Australia, New Zealand, 1/3 of New Guinea, and small coastal areas near India.
• France: Had the coast of Southeast Asia, establishing the union of Indochina (today’s Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos), where it established protectorates.
• Netherlands: Had the Malaysian islands (now Indonesia) and 1/3 of New Guinea.
• Spain: Had the Philippines.
• Russia: Expanded eastward, submitted to the people of central Asia, and colonized Siberia to the Pacific.
• Japan: Remained completely isolated from outside influences.
• USA: In 1898, it obtained the Philippines and Hawaii.

The British and French empires chose to protect their territories acquired from Russian and Japanese expansion.

European interest in trade with Asian countries went back to ancient times. Europeans acquired spices, tea, silk, and porcelain for gold and silver but only managed to introduce Western products. In particular, for all the colonial powers, China was a very desirable market. China, under the rule of the Manchu Dynasty, was very crowded, and the market was very important. Great Britain was the pioneer in establishing trade relations with China, but China opposed the entry of British goods into the country, such as opium grown in India. Due to this rejection by the Chinese government, the British faced China in the Opium Wars (1840-1859). After the defeat of China, Great Britain forced it to sign the so-called unequal treaties. Great Britain, having won the battle, imposed its conditions, forcing China to free trade with England via five ports. China was forced to buy European products and had to cede Hong Kong for a century for the exploitation of its riches. So, China was not occupied but commercially dominated by European powers led by Great Britain; they controlled railways, markets, customs, etc.

Foreign interference was answered by social revolts, such as the Boxer Rebellion. Nationalists expressed their discontent against their exploitation by foreign powers and against the government’s consent. In 1900, a rebellion broke out in which foreign embassies in Beijing were isolated against foreigners and international delegations. The revolt was halted by the combined military action of various powers: British, French, Japanese, Russian, German, and American. With this triumph, the victorious powers obtained even more business advantages and even demanded compensation.

Japanese Imperialism: An industrial empire that was rich in raw materials but produced its own energy through nuclear power plants. After the Meiji Revolution, Japan began an expansionist policy, wanting to expand in search of new markets and territories from which to obtain raw materials. There were clashes with China and Russia:

• Sino-Japanese War (19th Century, 1895): Japan’s victory, annexing the island of Formosa (now Taiwan) and obtaining the independence of Korea (China).
• Russo-Japanese War (20th Century, 1905): Caused by the expansionist zeal of both. With Japan’s victory, it achieved the protectorate of Manchuria. Korea, meanwhile, was divided between Russia and Japan.