Byzantine Empire, Carolingian Dynasty, Islam, and Feudal Society
Byzantine Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire was wealthier than the Western. It resisted Germanic invasions. Its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium, today Istanbul), built by Emperor Constantine. Emperor Justinian was pivotal, implementing the Justinian Code. After his death, the empire declined, disappearing in 1453 with the Turkish conquest. Cities retained their trade functions, and Byzantine coins were a major Mediterranean currency. After Justinian’s reign, Greek replaced Latin as the official language. The Great Schism occurred, and the cult of images (icons) was prohibited.
Byzantine Art
Byzantine art was rich, primarily religious, found in churches. Churches were often Greek cross-shaped (+) and covered with a dome. Mosaics were typical, covering walls and ceilings of churches and palaces.
Carolingian Empire
After the Roman Empire’s disintegration in the 5th century, the Franks established a kingdom. Kings were weak, with power held by palace officials. Charles Martel defeated the Muslims at Poitiers in 732. His son, Pepin the Short, overthrew the last monarch and was crowned king in 751. Pepin’s successor, Charlemagne, attempted to rebuild the Western Roman Empire. Crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800, he divided the empire into counties and border territories called marks. Counts and Marquises swore allegiance. The empire was largely rural. After Charlemagne’s death, the empire was divided among his sons, formalized by the Treaty of Verdun (843).
Islam and Muhammad
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, came from the Arabian Peninsula. Arabs were organized into nomadic tribes and were polytheistic. Mecca and Medina were major trading cities. Muhammad, a merchant, was influenced by Judaism and Christianity. After receiving revelations, he began preaching Islam, facing opposition from Meccan merchants. He migrated to Medina in 622 (the Hegira), marking the start of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, he formed an army and conquered Mecca, leading to Islam’s expansion throughout Arabia. The teachings of Muhammad are in the Quran, the holy book of Muslims. Muslims have five fundamental obligations: belief in one God, praying five times a day, pilgrimage to Mecca, fasting during Ramadan, and giving alms to the poor. The mosque is the Muslim place of worship, inspired by Muhammad’s house in Medina. It features a courtyard with a fountain for ablutions, a minaret for the call to prayer, a prayer hall (haram), a wall (qibla) indicating the direction of Mecca, a mihrab (niche), and a minbar (pulpit). Mosque interiors are decorated with vegetal, geometric, and calligraphic motifs; human figures are prohibited. Mosques also served as schools.
The Spread of Islam
After Muhammad’s death, Muslim armies expanded through holy war, creating an empire. The Caliph was the supreme authority, assisted by a vizier. In 661, the Umayyad family took power, moving the capital to Damascus and expanding the empire. In 750, the Abbasids replaced them, moving the capital to Baghdad. The empire declined in the 13th century, with the Turkish conquest. Islamic civilization flourished in agriculture (irrigation, mills, new crops), crafts (ceramics, weapons, textiles), and trade (caravans, ships). Cities like Damascus, Baghdad, Cordoba, and Cairo grew. They introduced new technologies (papermaking, gunpowder, compass) and knowledge (astronomy, mathematics, medicine) to Europe.
Farmers
Farmers comprised 90% of the population, many employed by landowners. Some were serfs, bound to the land and lord, unable to leave or marry without permission. Serfs worked the lord’s land and performed domestic tasks in exchange for food; serfdom was hereditary. Free peasants worked the land, paying rent and keeping the remaining harvest. They also paid a tithe (a percentage of the harvest) to the Church. Rural families lived in small villages in simple houses made of mud, wood, and reeds. Furniture was scarce, and sharing space with animals was common. The father was the head of the household. Peasants were self-sufficient, growing their food and making their clothes. They had a low standard of living, poor diets, limited medicine, and short lifespans, vulnerable to droughts, floods, and epidemics.
Work in the Field
Peasant work was arduous, from dawn to dusk. They lacked fertilizer, leaving half the land fallow each year. Agricultural production was low.
The Clergy
The Catholic Church was influential throughout Western Europe. The Pope, head of the Church, ruled the Papal States and had his own armies. He could excommunicate kings, releasing their subjects from allegiance.
The Religious Orders
The Benedictines, founded by St. Benedict in the 6th century, were the largest religious order. Monks lived in monasteries, following a rule, dedicating themselves to prayer, meditation, gardening, and caring for the poor and sick. Monasteries were often isolated but near villages. Monks copied and illuminated manuscripts.
Feudalism
After the Carolingian Empire’s fragmentation, Europe was divided into kingdoms with weak kings. Peasants sought protection from nobles, who built castles and armies. Peasants became serfs, bound to the nobles. Feudalism emerged as a new social system: Nobles controlled their lands, the king’s power was limited, nobles became vassals through homage and investiture, swearing allegiance and military service in exchange for land (fiefs). Vassals could have their own vassals, creating a chain of personal ties. Fiefs included castles, villages, farmland, pastures, and forests. Land was divided into the lord’s reserve and peasant farms. Peasants paid rent and taxes, and used the lord’s mill, oven, and press for a fee.
The Nobility
Nobles varied in wealth and power, from large landowners to those with only a horse. Warfare was their primary activity, fighting on horseback with spears, shields, and clubs. Noble sons received military training as pages and squires, becoming knights at adulthood. The king summoned nobles for military aid. Tournaments were important for training and prestige. Noblewomen married and had children, managed households, and educated children. They rarely left the castle and were subject to their husbands.
Castle
Castles were noble residences, fortified with moats, walls, and towers. They included stables, workshops, wells, barns, a chapel, and a keep (tower) where the lord lived. The great hall was used for receptions and feasts.
The Feudal Invasions
The 9th and 10th centuries were marked by division and invasions. The Carolingian Empire’s collapse weakened defenses, leading to invasions by Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens. Vikings from Scandinavia raided and conquered territories, including the British Isles. Magyars from the Asian steppes formed the Kingdom of Hungary. Saracens (Muslim pirates) raided Mediterranean coasts. These invasions were seen as divine punishment and a sign of the impending end of the world.
A Society of Rank
Medieval society was divided into three classes: nobles (defended the population), clergy (prayed), and workers (peasants, artisans, traders; produced goods). Class was determined by birth. Nobles and clergy were privileged, exempt from taxes and holding key administrative positions.