Asian Decolonization: A 20th-Century Transformation
Item 5: The Nationalist Lobby in 19th-Century China
During the nineteenth century, China’s nationalist lobby existed within a feudal monarchical and imperial structure. This structure featured a strong centralized government and bureaucracy. A vast population lived in near-slavery conditions, dominated by a small, noble landowning class. Following the Opium Wars, China ceded strategic cities to the UK and Portugal for inward foreign trade. In its peripheral relations, China lost the war with Japan, and Korea and Formosa were also lost.
The First Decolonized Region: Asia
Asia, with its ancient civilizations and large population, was the first geographical area to decolonize. It was largely outside the direct control of the Allied powers, having been invaded by Japan.
China
China never experienced full colonial rule. Its independence came in 1949 with the end of World War II and the triumph of the communist revolution. Chinese colonial enclaves remained largely outside European control.
Philippines
The Philippines, colonized by the USA, was the first Asian colony granted independence in 1946. However, it remained economically dependent on the US, with American companies continuing to hold significant influence. The continued presence of US military bases on Philippine territory established a neo-colonial model that would be replicated elsewhere.
India
India’s decolonization was a complex process that began before World War II. Two charismatic leaders, Mohandas Gandhi and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, spearheaded the movement. Gandhi, educated in England and from a wealthy merchant caste, advocated non-violent resistance. His methods included non-collaboration, civil disobedience, and passive resistance. Gandhi’s strength lay in bringing nationalism into popular consciousness and mobilizing people for the fight for freedom. 
Nehru, a socialist and atheist, was a close friend of Gandhi. He believed in class struggle but was concerned about the potential for uncontrolled fundamentalism and terrorism. While generally supportive of non-violence, Nehru favored a flexible approach. The Indian National Congress (INC) was the main pro-independence party. The struggle against British rule was long but eased during the war. In 1934, the INC split into the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) and the Nationalist Party (NP). The 1935 constitution granted India self-government, but collaboration proved unsuccessful. Religious tensions between Muslims and Hindus escalated in 1940. Nehru and Bose assumed leadership of the independence movement. Anti-colonial movements also emerged in Britain. India gained independence in 1947, with the Nationalist Party winning elections in 1948 and Nehru coming to power. The partition of India resulted in the creation of Pakistan for Muslims and India for Hindus. Following India’s independence, Burma and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) gained independence in 1948. Bangladesh seceded from Pakistan in 1971. Bhutan remained under British control until 1949, then became dependent on India.
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, previously dominated by various European powers, saw widespread adoption of liberalism and Marxism-Leninism, influenced by Mao’s China. The 1929 financial crash impacted Asia quickly, leading to armed revolts. Siam underwent a nationalist revolution, changing its name to Thailand and overthrowing the absolute monarchy. Japan occupied the region during World War II, initially welcomed as liberators but soon resisted by communist guerrillas. Indigenous governments took control after the war, leading to clashes between separatists and former colonial powers. Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia in 1975. Malaysia, strategically important to Britain, achieved independence in 1957, forming a constitutional republic. Britain retained control of Singapore, which gained autonomy in 1959. Indonesia declared independence from the Netherlands, with intellectuals opposing the communists who had led the anti-Japanese resistance. The UN recognized Indonesia’s independence in 1947, but the Dutch resumed fighting in 1948. Indonesia finally achieved independence in 1949, led by Sukarno. Vietnam’s independence from France was led by Ho Chi Minh. The French occupied Saigon, triggering a civil war with nationalist support. Communists, aided by China, gained ground, leading to independence in 1954 and the division of the country along the 17th parallel. The planned 1956 referendum was abandoned, leading to civil war and US intervention. Cambodia gained independence from France in the same process as Vietnam. Occupied by the French after World War II, Cambodia faced war against the Khmer Rouge, supported by Vietnamese communists. A liberal constitution was signed in 1946, but independence came in 1954. Vietnamese intervention in 1978 aimed to curb the Khmer Rouge. Cambodia changed its name to Kampuchea or Khmer Republic. Laos gained independence from France in a similar process to Vietnam and Cambodia. Korea gained independence directly from Japan after the war, with Chinese assistance. The advance of communists in 1950 led to war with the United States, resulting in a divided nation.