Aristotle’s Philosophy: Anthropology, Ethics, and Politics
Anthropology
The Soul and the Body
Aristotle, unlike Plato, saw no distinct separation between the soul and the body. He believed that while an individual perishes, the species endures. The soul, according to Aristotle, is defined by its functions within a species. These functions are hierarchical and differentiate species. The vegetative function pertains to nourishment and reproduction, primarily observed in plants. The sensitive function involves movement and sensation, predominantly found in animals. Lastly, the rational function, unique to humans, is the pursuit of truth through reason, the source of human happiness. These functions build upon each other, with the rational encompassing the sensitive and vegetative.
Aristotle viewed man as composed of primary substance (the individual) and secondary substance (the species). While individuals embody the species, the species doesn’t exist independently. Though an individual ceases to exist upon death, interpretations of human immortality exist within Aristotle’s philosophy.
Hylomorphism
Aristotle’s hylomorphic theory describes the soul as the form of the body. Soul and body are principles that unite to form the substance known as man. If the body dies, the soul departs. Aristotle’s anthropology can be understood in three stages: First, influenced by Plato, he initially posited the soul and body as distinct substances, advocating for the pre-existence and transmigration of the soul. Second, he viewed the soul as distinct yet accidentally attached to the body. Third, the soul is no longer an independent substance but a structure of the body. Thus, the body receives form, and the soul is that form.
In his later works, Aristotle appears to abandon the ideas of the soul’s pre-existence and transmigration, leaving the question of its mortality unresolved.
Ethics
Happiness and Virtue
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle argues that citizenship, in the sense of having rights within the polis, isn’t essential for happiness. A person living in a polis without rights could still achieve happiness, while someone outside the polis could not. Being human requires rationality and communication. Aristotle’s ethics are often considered eudemonistic, focused on achieving happiness. He proposed aligning with our natural function. Our vegetative and sensitive functions contribute to happiness as animals, representing moral virtues like temperance—finding the balance between extremes, such as cowardice and recklessness.
True happiness, however, stems from the rational function, manifested as intellectual virtues. These include art (making), prudence (knowing what’s appropriate), and wisdom (comprising intelligence, science, and logos). Wisdom is paramount for Aristotle. He also emphasizes fortune (luck) and habit (practicing right actions). Freedom, living in accordance with our nature, is crucial for happiness, even though our ultimate purpose is determined by nature.
Politics
Aristotle says that man is a political animal. The man to develop has to live in a polis. Thus, other citizens will educate and teach the discipline of the law. Also, if we have no communication with other humans, we do not develop as men, because we need to share knowledge. Man can not reach their intelligence (entelechy) in society. Aristotle distinguishes, according to the number of rulers, between good and bad government. To do this, there should be classes divided into levels with other ways of life. The major forms of government are acceptable to Aristotle and the Politeia, the aristocracy and the monarchy. It is difficult to state that these forms are not de-legitimized and become oligarchies and timocracy. To judge whether states are good or not depends on a number of features. For starters, the ruling should be devoted to the common good and not their own. Some citizens are engaged in the wisdom and all citizens must get to know each other. Moreover, the rulers have to be the most elderly, they are the wiser. Education should be published because it is beneficial for the state. There may also be distinctions between social groups, but not so strict. In conclusion, the slaves are born to obey, because they are in nature. Aristotle says in the last term that the best government would be a mixture of the three good forms of government. The key position was that of the aristocrats, and that his government was for the benefit of all, for the politesis.