Anglo-Saxon Britain: Key Historical Texts and Sources
Text 1: Agricola by Tacitus, c. 98 CE
Text 1 Agricola by Tacitus, c. 98 CE. In 77 CE, Julius Agricola was made governor of Britannia. Tacitus wrote Agricola’s biography c. 98 CE, and chapters XXIX-XXXVIII tell of The Battle of Mons Graupius, Agricola’s attempt to conquer the north of Great Britain.
Situating the Text
Who? Tacitus was born in 56 CE and died c. 120 CE. He was a Roman historian known for other works such as Germania. He was Agricola’s son-in-law, having married his daughter Julia Agricola, and he admired Agricola.
What? This is a fragment of Agricola, the biography of Julius Agricola, a Roman general and governor of Britannia between 77 CE and 84 CE. Specifically, we are reading sections of chapters XXX and XXXI about The Battle of Mons Graupius. The original is in Latin.
Where? Mons Graupius (Mount Graupius) is somewhere in the Scottish Highlands. In the final campaign season of his governorship, Agricola confronted the Britanni (Caledonians and a confederation of northern clans) at a place named Mons Graupius.
When? 83 CE to c. 98 CE.
Why? Tacitus wanted to recount Agricola’s career and tell of his governorship, defend that Agricola embodied Roman virtue, and denounce corruption in the Roman Empire.
Roman Britain
- 122-127 CE: Hadrian’s Wall was built.
- 142-154 CE: Attempt to build the Antonine Wall.
- Britannia was divided into provinces and cities.
- Christian churches and monasteries were built.
- Civil wars broke out to claim the imperial throne.
- Pressure from the Germanic tribes.
- The Great Conspiracy.
Text 2: De excidio Britanniae by Gildas, c. 540 CE
Christianity had spread among the Romano-British population, and monks such as Gildas wrote and recorded historical events. He tells of the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, who were pagans.
Situating the Text
Who? Gildas was born c. 450 and died c. 570 CE. He was a Romano-British monk and historian. In the 6th century, he founded a monastery in Brittany named after him, St. Gildas de Rhuys. He believed the Saxon invasion was a punishment from God for the sins of the Britons.
What? This is a fragment of De excidio Britanniae. It is a jeremiad (a moral book) and one of the few sources for the country’s post-Roman history. Specifically, we are reading sections of chapters 23, 25 and 26, about the invitation to the Anglo-Saxons, the consequences of their arrival, and the story of the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus and the defeat of the Saxons at Mons Badonicus. The original is in Latin.
Where? He explains how the Saxons first arrived on the eastern side of the island and also mentions their homeland. He also mentions Mount Badon, but its location is unknown.
When? 6th century.
Why? Gildas wanted to recount the history of the Britons before and during the Saxon invasion, criticise British rulers, denounce the wickedness of his times, and encourage Britons to embrace the Christian faith. The Britons tried to fight back.
Anglo-Saxon Britain
The period from the 5th century to 1066 saw Germanic society, language and customs. The language was Old English, and the period is known as Early Medieval England. Society moved from paganism to Christianity.
- Martial society: Men were valued for their courage and skill in battle. Kings were chosen. Some queens and women landowners are documented.
- Ring-givers: Leaders richly rewarded their loyal followers.
- Heptarchy (Seven Kingdoms): The period between the consolidation of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England in the 6th century CE and the early 9th century. In the 7th century, Northumbria held hegemony under King Edwin (616-633). In the 8th century, Mercia was ascendant. In the 9th century, Wessex rose. Kent and Sussex also featured in this period from the 5th century.
Text 3: Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum by Bede, 731 CE
Bede wrote the history of England from Julius Caesar’s expedition in 55 BCE to his own time. He includes the story of the Augustine/Gregorian mission of 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons.
Situating the Text
Who? Bede was born 672/673 and died 735 CE. Known as St. Bede the Venerable, he was an Anglo-Saxon monk and historian. He wrote many works in Latin, became the most important scholar of the 8th century, and was the first English historian to achieve an international reputation. He was very influential in spreading the use of BC and AD in history.
What? This is a fragment of Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum. It is a source vital to the history of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity and survives in multiple manuscripts. It is composed of five books covering the period from the arrival of Julius Caesar to Bede’s own time. We are reading a section of Book 2, chapter 1, about the Gregorian mission. Originally written in Latin, it was also translated into Old English in the 9th century.
Where? The story begins in a market in Rome, where some Anglo-Saxons were being sold as slaves. These Anglo-Saxons (called Angles in the text) are said to be from Deira.
When? The events took place in the 570s and 590s CE, and Bede wrote in 731 CE. It is a story “handed down to us by the tradition of our ancestors.”
Why? Bede wanted to recount the history of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity and present that conversion as almost ordained by Providence (God’s control of all things).
Text 4: Beowulf, Anonymous, Uncertain Date
Beowulf is the most admired work of Old English literature: “A snapshot that captures a fascinating point in history, when Europe was teetering between its pagan past and its Christian future.” It is an epic story and elegy grounded in Germanic mythology. Beowulf is a warrior from the land of the Geats (modern Sweden). He travels to Denmark to help King Hrothgar and his people against a monster called Grendel and, later, Grendel’s mother. Back in Geatland, he becomes king for 50 years and eventually defeats a dragon at the cost of his life. The poem ends with his funeral and eulogy. The text is poetry that does not rhyme and uses variatio.
Situating the Text
Who? The author is anonymous. We do not know who created the story. We know only that scribes (possibly monks) copied it by hand. This manuscript, the Nowell Codex, is now in the British Library (Cotton Vitellius A.XV). There are two theories: the Christian ideas (e.g., Grendel descends from the lineage of Cain) suggest the poem was written after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons, and these ideas may have been added by scribes to a secular story; alternatively, the original story may be an older, more pagan myth.
What? The only surviving copy of Beowulf is in a handwritten collection called the Nowell Codex. The codex includes multiple texts: two translations of Latin prose works (The Letter of Alexander to Aristotle and The Wonders of the East), a homily on a saint (The Passion of St Christopher), and a poetic adaptation of a biblical book (Judith). Beowulf is an epic poem set in Scandinavia.
- Epic hero: Beowulf has heroic qualities, slays monsters, and fights for the good of a nation.
- Epic style: An elevated, formal tone, long descriptions and digressions, rhetorical devices, passages narrating battles and pseudo-historical events, and descriptions of genealogies.
- Folk epic: Like the Iliad or Odyssey, it features a noble hero, establishes a national history and identity, is founded on oral traditions and legends, and is anonymous.
Where? The poem was composed in England, and the story takes place in Scandinavia.
When? Estimates range from the 6th century CE to c. 1000 CE.
Why? Beowulf is not a piece of writing by a historian; it is fiction with many different themes and interpretations. One theme is mortality and grief: the poem opens and ends with funerals and includes multiple deaths in battle. From a Christian perspective, youth and fate helped Beowulf as a young pagan warrior; when he is old, without the help of God, the pagan hero dies, representing a moral failure. The funeral at the end provides a sense of closure.
Text 5: The Battle of Brunanburh, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Late 9th Century
Æthelstan and his brother Edmund fought the allied Norse, Scots, and Strathclyde Britons in the Battle of Brunanburh. We are reading a poem celebrating Æthelstan’s victory.
Situating the Text
Who? The author is anonymous. The chronicles were compiled on the orders of Alfred the Great and added to by generations of anonymous authors. We do not know who wrote the poem or who included it in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
What? This is an Old English poem or panegyric preserved in manuscripts A, B, C and D of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (four of the nine surviving manuscripts). It covers the whole entry for the year 937. In the manuscripts, the poem is set out as a continuous entry, as in prose.
Where? No one knows where the battle took place. Suggested locations include Bromborough and South Yorkshire.
When? The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was first assembled in the reign of King Alfred (871-899). The earliest manuscript (A) was written in one hand up to 891 and then continued in various hands, possibly contemporary with the entries. We are reading the entry for 937 CE.
Why? The poem exalts Æthelstan and his rule, serving as pro-Saxon propaganda. It recounts the “greatest battle ever fought in England” and an important victory that signalled the beginning of a united England and established the modern boundaries of England, Scotland and Wales.
Text 6: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 11th Century
We are reading the records of what happened in 1065 and 1066 in England, including the death of King Edward, the coronation of Harold, and the troubles that followed.
Situating the Text
Who? The author is anonymous. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles were compiled on the orders of Alfred the Great and added to by generations of anonymous authors (monks). We do not know who wrote this text or who included it in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
What? This is a chronicle of annals. We are reading two entries, for 1065 and 1066, from the ‘D’ version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was compiled in Worcester (the Worcester Chronicle). Most of it is prose, but the 1065 entry contains a poem on the death of Edward the Confessor. The original was written in Old English.
Where? Locations mentioned in the text include the Kingdom of Scotland, York, and Westminster Abbey. These entries may have been written in Worcester.
When? The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was first assembled in the reign of King Alfred (871-899). We are reading the entries for 1065 and 1066 CE. The D manuscript was copied c. 1050 from a lost original and then continued, probably in Worcester, up to 1079. Relevant dates include December 1065, January 1066, and April 1066.
Why? A chronicle “factually” reports events. In this text, Harold is defended against William, which reflects Anglo-Saxon propaganda.